
THE STORY OF 

EUROPE 



HARDING 





THE LAKE HISTORY STORIES 




I 




Class .^Jj/^^^__ 



Gmn0}i°J^l/^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



The Lake History Stories 



The Lake History Stories 



THE HARDING BOOKS 

GREEK GODS, HEROES, AND MEN, by Samuel 
B. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 202 pages, 
12 full page illustrations. Price $0.50 

THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, by Samuel B. 
Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 274 pages, 38 
illustrations and maps. Price 50 

THE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES, by Samuel 
B. Harding. New edition, revised and enlarged. 
256 pages, 79 illustrations and maps. Price 50 

THE STORY OF ENGLAND, by Samuel B. Harding 
and William F. Harding. 384 pages, 7 maps, and 

138 illustrations. Price 60 

Teachers' Manual, 73 pages, price 25 cents. 

THE STORY OF EUROPE, from the Times of the 
Ancient Greeks to the Colonization of America. 
Based on the report of the Committee of Eight to the 
American Historical Association. By Samuel B. 
Harding and Margaret Snodgrass. 384 pages, 128 
illustrations and maps. Price 60 



THE EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE, 

by Edwin E. Sparks, M.A., Ph.D., State College, 
Pennsylvania. 472 pages, 184 illustrations and maps. 
Price 60 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 

Chicago New York 



If 


^msm^am 


s^ : «a^ 1 




t^j^jp—iif^- m*-^ 




il 


^--i*^- 


-.^3&^i 








^S 




jl ^^ig^^Bliy -^ A 


it- 


^B 










H^^HHB.fH'' > 




l*^^^^^B^^^m 


"|-i^:;:%' 




kj^l,^ 




X-i-^^^M 


^i' 


i:S» 


WBmM ■***^^*':«c-«i3i 


1^ 




^,eg^ 


if 


1 


id! 


^ 
>- 



THE STORY OF 

EUROPE 

FROM THE TIMES OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS 
TO THE COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 



AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY FOR THE SIXTH 

GRADE, BASED UPON THE REPORT OF THE 

COMMITTEE OF EIGHT TO THE AMERICAN 

HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION 



BY 



SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF EUROPEAN HISTORT IN INDIANA UNIVERSITY 

ASSISTED BY 

MARGARET SNODGRASS, A.M. 

TEACHER OF HISTORY IN SHORTRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 
CHICAGO NEW YORK 






1^1 



%- 



COPYRIGHT, 19X2 
BY SCOir. FORESMAN AND COMPANY 



CC1.A316146 



CONTENTS 






To THE Teacher , ix 

THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE LEARNED FROM THEM 

I. Greece and the Greeks 1 

II. Achilles and the War Against Troy 9 

III. Sparta and Athens 15 

IV. The War of the Greeks and the Persians.. 19 
V. The Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis . . 23 

VI. Athens Under Pericles 30 

VII. Socrates the Philosopher 35 

VIII. Alexander the Great 39 

IX. The Spread of Greek Culture 45 

THE ROMANS— WHAT THEY LEARNED FROM THE 
GREEKS AND WHAT THEY HAVE TAUGHT US 

X. Early Days of Rome 49 

XL The Story of Cincinnatus 56 

XII. The Gauls in Rome 61 

XIII. Rome's Wars with Carthage 68 

XIV. Rome and the Mediterranean World 76 

XV. The Romans in the West 81 

XVI. Rome the Capital of an Empire 91 

XVII. Rome and Christianity 105 

THE GERMANS THE HEIRS OF THE ROMANS— UFE 
OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

XVIII. The Ancient Germans 114 

XIX. The Germans Invade the Empire 123 

XX. The Founding of England 135 

XXI. King Alfred and the Northmen 145 

XXII. The Normans Conquer England 155 

V 



VI 



CONTENTS 



XXIII. King John and the Great Charter 163 

XXIV. The Rise of Parliament 169 

XXV. Life in the Castles 178 

XXVI. Life in the Villages 192 

XXVII. Life in the Medieval Towns 201 

XXVIII. The Church in the Middle Ages 213 

PILGRIMAGES, CRUSADES, AND COMMERCE 

XXIX. Pilgrimages of the Middle Ages 226 

XXX, The First Crusade 232 

XXXI. The Crusade of Richard the Lion-Hearted 242 

XXXII. Results of the Crusades 251 

THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD 

XXXIII. The Beginnings of Discovery 259 

XXXIV. The Voyages of Columbus 269 

XXXV. The Successors to Columbus 278 

XXXVI. Spanish Conquests in America 285 

EUROPEAN RIVALRIES WHICH INFLUENCED AMERICAN 
CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION 

XXXVII. England in the Days of Elizabeth 297 

XXXVIII. French Rivalry with Spain 311 

XXXIX. The Dutch Revolt Against Spain 319 

XL. England Defeats the Spanish Armada 327 

XLI. English Colonization Begun 337 

XLII. Summary: The Growth of Civilization 349 

CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 354 

INDEX (with Pronunciation of Proper Names). . . 359 



LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



MAPS 



Page 

Map of Greece xvi 

Map of Alexander's Empire 42 

Map of Italy 50 

Roman Empire 92 



Page 

Map of Saxon Kingdoms 138 

Map of the Crusades 236 

Map Showing Voyages and Discoveries 268 
The Spanish Armada 331 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



A Vassal in the Middle Ages doing 

Homage to his Lord Frontispiece 

Statue of Apollo 4 

Bust of Zeus (Jupiter) 5 

Statue of Aphrodite (Venus) 7 

A Greek Warship of the 5th Century 

B. C 10 

Athens as it is Now 17 

Return of the Victors from Salamis. . 27 

The Acropolis of Athens 31 

Statue of Athena 33 

Statue of Alexander the Great 40 

Alexander Defeating the Persians. ... 43 
A Temple on the Acropolis (Erech- 

theum) 46 

Attendants upon a King or Consul.. . 52 

Roman Plow 57 

A Roman Soldier 58 

Roman Standard Bearer 59 

Gallic Soldier 62 

The Roman Forum (Restoration) .... 64 

View of the Capitol 66 

Hannibal 69 

Ruins of a Roman Acqueduct 77 

A Roman Road Across a Marsh 78 

Bust of Julius Caesar 82 

Roman Chariot Race 84 

Gladiators Fighting 85 

Part of the Roman Wall in Britain.. . 90 

Interior of a House at Pompeii 97 

Lamp and Stand 98 

Spoon and Drinking Bowl from 

Pompeii 99 

Drawing on the Outer Wall of a House 

in Pompeii 100 

Roman Books and Writing Materials . 102 

Toga-Front 103 

Toga-Back 103 



Persecution of the Christians 108 

A Bishop on His Throne 112 

A Monk 112 

An Old German Village 115 

Woden 120 

Thor 121 

A Hun Warrior 125 

Goths on the March 126 

Franks Crossing the Rhine 129 

Arms of Franks 130 

A Frankish Chief 131 

Baptism of Clovis 132 

Old English Ships 136 

Old EngUsh Warriors 137 

An Early English Church 142 

Remains of a Viking Ship Found in 

Sweden :..;.. 146 

An English King 150 

Woman's Costume 150 

Gold Jewel of Alfred 151 

Old English Horn Lantern 152 

House of an English Noble 153 

William the Conqueror 156 

William of Normandy Landing in 

England 157 

Death of Harold 158 

A Norman Castle in England 160 

John Granting the Charter 165 

Portion of the Great Charter 166 

Seal of Edward 1 172 

The New Houses of Parliament in 

London 173 

Interior View of the House of Com- 
mons Today 175 

A Castle of the Eleventh Century 179 

The "Saucy Castle" of Richard the 

Lion-Hearted 183 

Falconry 187 



LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

Arming the Knight 189 

A Great Feast in the P2th Century. . 190 

Plan of Village 193 

Peasants Plowing 195 

Peasants Breaking Clods with Mallets 195 

Harrowing 196 

Men and Women Reaping 196 

Threshing 197 

A German Town 202 

Attack upon a City in the Later 

Middle Ages 205 

A Medieval Shop 207 

Canterbury Cathedral 209 

A Fair in the 13th Century 211 

Cathedral of Cologne 214 

Head of a Bishop's Staff 215 

A German Monastery 218 

A French Cloister 219 

Monk in Scriptorium 221 

Illuminated Initial 223 

A Pilgrim 227 

Canterbury Pilgrims 228 

A Crusader 233 

Crusaders on the March 235 

A Machine for Hurling Stones 240 

Knight Templar 243 

Richard the Lion-Hearted 245 

Shield of Richard 246 

Movable Tower 247 



Pack 

Armor of the Time of King Richard . . . 249 

Venetian Merchant Ship 254 

The Grand Canal of Venice 255 

Plaza of St. Mark, Venice 256 

Kublai Khan 260 

Marco Polo 261 

Early Printers 263 

Departure of Columbus 273 

The Cross-Staff 274 

Magellan 283 

Mexican Calendar Stone 286 

Fair God of the Mexicans 287 

Indian Pueblo 292 

Spanish Mission of Santa Barbara. . . 295 

Queen Elizabeth 300 

London Bridge in the Days of Eliza- 
beth 301 

Gold Coin of Elizabeth 304 

Drake's Ship 306 

Traveling in State in Elizabeth's Time 309 

Bayard 312 

French Battle in Italy 313 

Scene in Holland 320 

William the Silent 322 

Battle between the English Fleet and 

the Armada 333 

An Indian Warrior 340 

Indian Village 342 



TO THE TEACHER 

In presenting this text-book of history for the sixth 
grade, it is the hope of the authors that they have put 
into practical form the general plan outlined in the 
report by the Committee of Eight to the American 
Historical Association. Reasons for adopting this plan 
and the ends to be sought in following it are fully set 
forth in the report {The Study of History in the Elemen- 
tary Schools; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909), and need 
not be repeated here.* A few suggestions, however, 
as to the Une of approach may be helpful. 

The year's work is designed to present to the child in 
tangible concrete form the European background of 
American history: to give some definite impressions of 
the civilizations of ancient and modern Europe, and of 
the events leading to the transplanting of those civil- 
izations to America. The introductory lessons should so 
utilize the child's previous experience and knowledge as 
to make vivid the realization that the beginnings of the 
world he sees about him are to be sought far in the past and 
in distant lands. The method of procedure outlined below 
can be modified indefinitely to meet the special views 
of the teacher or the requirements and ability of the 
class. 

It is well to develop first the thought suggested in the 
opening paragraph of chapter one. Ask whether any 

*The course of study outlined for the State of Indiana by the State Depart- 
ment of Public Instruction (State Manual, 1911) differs from that of the Committee 
of Eight in two particulars. (1) One year, instead of two, is given to the prelim- 
inary survey of American history, and this is placed in the fifth year. (2) The 
stories of Greek and Roman history are taken out of the sixth year and placed in 
the fourth, where they are supplemented by Bible stories. It is believed that this 
affords the most practicable plan for lightening the rather heavy course of the sixth 
year. Classes which have already had the stories of Greek and Roman history 
before reaching the sixth year can begin this book with Chapter xviii. 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



^1 
-I 

Sir 



-1} 



Rome founded (legendary date). 



Greek war with Persians. 

Athens under Pericles. 

Socrates put to death. 
Rome burned by the Gauls. 

- Death of Alexabder. 



Roman wars with Carthage. 



Greece and Macedonia come- 
under Roman rule 



Julius Caesar conquers Gaul. 



Augustus. Emperor 

Persecution of Christians 
hy Nero. 



ft 



Constantine the Great makes 
the Empire Christian. 



- Goths sack Rome. 

- Angles and Saxons conquer Britain. 

- End of Western Empire. 

} Clovis king of the Franks. 



Mohammed founds new religion 



of the class were born else- 
where than in this country; 
whether any have parents, 
grandparents, relatives, or 
friends who came to America 
from other lands. Make a list 
of the lands from which they 
came, and locate them on a 
map. With most classes these 
questions will bring out the 
fact that America has been 
settled for the most part by 
people who came from Europe. 
To show how these people 
have come, ask the children 
to find out and tell to the 
class the experiences of 
emigrants whom they know 
personally, in coming to 
America. Show a picture of 
an ocean steamship (easily 
obtainable from transporta- 
tion companies) and describe 
its arrangements. Tell how 
emigrants are now admitted, 
for example, at Ellis Island 
in New York harbor; and how 
they reach their final destina- 
tions, using, if possible, illus- 
trations of local interest. 
Contrast the experiences of 
an emigrant today with 
those of the Pilgrims in the 
Mayflower. 



TO THE TEACHER xi 

Next try to give the pupils some idea of the extent of 
time which separates us from the beginnings of history. 
Work back from the present by generations, then by 
centuries. Three generations (grandfather, father, and 
son) practically cover a century. But the beginning 
of our story goes back more than thirty centuries. To 
illustrate this, put upon the blackboard a vertical mark 
to represent the time of Christ's birth. Draw to the 
left of this a line divided into at least twelve units, to 
represent time B.C.; and to the right nineteen units to 
represent time a.d. Each unit represents a century, 
and they may be numbered underneath. Make a cross 
in the nineteenth century for the American Civil War, 
another in the eighteenth century for the American 
Revolution, and another in the fifteenth century for the 
discovery of America by Columbus. Then put a mark 
in the twelfth century B.C. for the Greek war with Troy. 
Get the pupils to understand that even this is not the 
first beginning of history. 

Use a map to show that most of the peoples known in 
the days of ancient Greece and Rome lived about the 
Mediterranean Sea. Emphasize the fact that the 
American continents were unknown. Make clear some 
of the ancient notions about the shape of the earth as 
expressed in the terms ''Ultima Thule" and the "Anti- 
podes," and bring out the idea that knowledge of the 
earth was so limited because ancient peoples lacked the 
means of communication we now have. 

Next the teacher should, by questioning, make out a 
list of the most important modern inventions which 
have increased our facilities for communication, such as 
the steamship, the locomotive, the telegraph, and the 
telephone. Attention should then be called to some 
inventions made before Columbus discovered America, 



.xii THE STORY OF EUROPE 

especially the compass and printing with movable metal 
types. Show the effect of the compass on maritime 
enterprise, and the importance of the printing-press in 
the spread of knowledge and culture. 

This will lead the class back to still older inventions, 
like that of the alphabet. Explain simply that history 
began when men first made written records of their 
deeds. This was in Egypt probably seven thousand 
years ago, and the first writing was merely crude pic- 
tures of material objects, carved upon the stone walls of 
temples and monuments. (Show pictures of Egyptian 
hieroglyphics.) A great advance in simplicity and 
expressiveness was made when the later Egyptians and 
Babylonians made signs or symbols to represent syllables 
instead of objects. But it was the Phoenicians, the 
neighbors and kinsmen of the Hebrews in Palestine, 
who completed the work of the Babylonians and Egyp- 
tians, and made a true phonetic alphabet by inventing 
simple symbols or letters to represent the elementary 
sounds of the human voice. The Phoenicians were a 
commercial and maritime people, and through their 
trade came in contact with the Greeks, who adopted 
their alphabet. The English alphabet is based upon 
the Roman, which was developed from the Greek. 
A comparison of a few English, Latin, and Greek capital 
letters will be interesting, and will show the changes 
wrought by centuries of usage. 

Four or five days given to introductory work of this 
sort should be suflacient to prepare the class to take up 
the study of the text with interest and with some sense 
of historical perspective. 

The analyses of the contents given at the beginning of 
each chapter in the text have been prepared with a view 
to assisting the pupils to get at the points of real impor- 



TO THE TEACHER xiil 

tance. The topics indicated at the close of each chapter 
are designed to suggest new angles from which material 
given in the chapter may be viewed, and to encourage 
further reading. A stimulus to reading and inquiry 
should always be one of the aims of history teaching, 
even the most elementary. 

It is urged that the pupils be required to study the 
pictures as well as the text. Much additional infor- 
mation may thus be obtained, while at the same time the 
child's powers of observation are sharpened. Special 
attention should be given to the correct pronunciation 
of proper names. In the index to the book will be found 
all the proper names used, with the correct diacritical 
marks. It is urged also that constant use be made both 
of wall maps and of maps in the text, in order that the 
pupils' sense of place may be developed. It may be 
further suggested that the working out by the children 
themselves of such a time chart as is indicated above 
will be found eminently worth while. This may most 
easily be made on strips of paper six or eight inches 
broad, and nine feet long. Wrapping paper may be 
obtained from a storekeeper's roll and cut to the proper 
width; or sheets of letter paper maj^ be pasted together, 
end to end. Four inches may be allotted to a century; 
and by writing on both sides of the central lines space may 
be found for putting in most of the important events 
mentioned in this text. The cut on page x indicates- 
roughly the sort of chart contemplated. The sheet 
may be made manageable by rolling it, or better 
perhaps by folding it (alternately over and back, after 
the fashion of a set of panoramic views) on the lines 
separating the century divisions. 

If these various suggestions are followed, it is believed 
that neither pupils nor teacher will experience any 



xiv THE STORY OF EUROPE 

serious difficulty with European history in the sixth 
grade. And by such a study the pupils' minds will be 
enriched, and be better prepared to grapple understand- 
ingly with the American history as it is presented in the 
last two years of the common-school course. 

In concluding, a word of acknowledgement is due to 
Superintendent Henry Lester Smith, of the Bloomington 
schools, who very kindly read the book in proofsheets, 
and made many helpful suggestions. 

Bloomington, Indiana, April, 1912. 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



GREECE AND THE GREEKS 

Points to be Noted 

Why Americans should study the history of Europe. 

Size and coast line of Europe; its three southern peninsulas. 

The location and natural beauty of Greece; character of the 

Greek people. 
What the Greeks thought about the world; their gods, and how 

they worshiped them. 

If you were to go to the harbor of New York and 
watch one of the great ocean steamships unload its 
passengers, among them you would probably 
see some hundreds of men, women, and little relation 

to Europe 

children who had come across the Atlantic 
Ocean to find new homes in the United States. Where 
do these people come from? You would probably find 
that most of them are from some part of the continent 
or islands of Europe; and from their language, their 
dress, and their manners you would at once guess that 
their countries must be different in many ways from 
America. There are several millions of people in our 
country today who were born in Europe and came to 
the United States in this way. Indeed, almost every one 
of us would find, if we should inquire, that either our 
parents or grandparents, or at least their parents or 
grandparents, were emigrants from the Old World to the 
New. If you inquired still further, you would find that 
most of the things which make us a civilized people — 
such as our religion, the subjects which we study in 
schools, our ways of living, and the great inventions of 
gunpowder, the compass, and printing — all these were 



2 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

brought to our country by emigrants from Europe. So, 
if we wish to understand the history and institutions of 
our own country, we must first learn something of the 
history and institutions of the lands from which our 
forefathers came. 

You will see, by looking at the map of the world in 
your geography, that Europe is the smallest of the five 
Geography great Continents. It appears to be scarcely 
of Europe u^qyq than a great peninsula jutting out from 
Asia, and yet its people have played by far the largest 
part in the history of the world. The close connection 
with Asia enabled them to learn from the people of that 
continent the first steps in civilization; and the climate, 
situation, and geographical structure cf Europe were 
all favorable for developing civilization still further. 

You will also see from the map that the coast of Europe 
is very irregular in outline. Many bays and seas run far 
into the land, forming numerous peninsulas. This 
irregular outline was an important factor in developing 
civilization, for on these sheltered seas and bays, early 
men could venture forth in safety, to catch fish and to 
carry on trade with neighboring lands. 

To the south of Europe, separating it from Africa, is 
the largest of the inclosed seas, which we call the Medi- 
terranean Sea. For two thousand years before 

The Medi- p ^ i i i - i 

terranean the time of Columbus, tliis sca was the center 

lands 

of the civilized world. In the lands washed 
by its waters European civilization was first developed, 
and there alone, for many centuries, it flourished. By 
looking again at the map, you will see that there are 
three peninsulas which jut out from Europe into the 
Mediterranean Sea. If we were to sail directly east 
from New York, we should, after some time, touch the 
shores of the westernmost of these — Spain. Continuing 



GREECE AND THE GREEKS 3 

our journey, we should come to. Italy. Finally, we 
should reach Greece — the smallest and most irregular 
in its outHne of the three, and the one nearest to Asia, 
the original home of civilization. 

It is with the peninsula of Greece that the story of 
Europe begins. That little country is beautiful in many 
ways. Its sky is bluer than our own; its 
winters are short and mild, and its summers peninsula 

of Greece 

long and pleasant. In whatever direction you 
look, you may see the top of some tall mountain reaching 
up toward the sky. Between the mountains lie beautiful 
deep valleys, and small sunny plains, while almost all 
around the land stretches a bright, blue sea. 

The people who live in that country are not very 
different now from ourselves. But in the long-ago days 
this was not so. There were then no news- ^, 

The 

papers, no railroads, no telegraph lines, such Greek 
as we are used to now. The people were 
obliged to live very simply, for they lacked a great 
many things which we think that we could not possibly 
do without. 

But although the old Greeks did not know anything 
of electric lights and steam engines, and ate the plainest 
food, and wore the simplest of woolen clothing, they were 
not at all a rude or a savage people. In their cities were 
fine buildings, and pictures, and statues so beautiful 
that we can never hope to make better ones. And they 
had lovely thoughts and fancies, too, concerning all the 
world about them. 

When they saw the sun rise, they thought that it was a 
god, who came up out of the sea in the east, and then 
journeyed across the sky toward the west. When they 
saw the grass and flowers springing out of the dark cold 
earth, they fancied that there must be another god who 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




STATUE OF APOLLO 



GREECE AND THE GREEKS 



made them grow. They imagined that the lightning 
was the weapon of a mighty god who ruled the earth 
and sky. And so they explained everything ^j^^ ^^^ 
about them, by thinking that it was caused ^f^^^^^ 
by some being much greater than themselves. 
Sometimes they 
even imagined 
that they could 
see their gods 
in the clouds or 
in the waves of 
the sea, and some- 
times they thought 
that they heard 
them speaking in 
the rustling leaves 
of the forest. 

The Greeks be- 
lieved that the rule 
over the whole 
world was divided 
among three great 
gods, who were 
brothers. The first 
and greatest of 
these was Zeus 
(called Jupiter by 
the Romans), who 
ruled the heavens 

and the earth ; it was he who sent the lightning to destroy 
those who disobeyed him. The second god, who ruled 
the ocean, the rivers, and the brooks, was named 
Poseidon (Neptune). The third, who was called Hades, 
was the god of the underworld; this was the dark region 




BUST OF ZEUS (JUPITER) 



6 STORY OF EUROPE 

beneath the surface of the earth where dwelt the spirits 
of the dead. 

Besides these three, there were many other gods, most 
of whom were their children or were related to them in 
some way. 

Apollo, who was one of the sons of Zeus, was the most 
beautiful of all the gods. He was the sun-god, and 
* „ ^ brought warmth and light to men. The 

Apollo, and " ... 

th2 oracle Greeks would never begin anything important 
without first seeking Apollo's advice. This 
they obtained from the priestess who dwelt at Delphi in 
his temple there. It was her duty to tell the people 
who came to the temple the answers which the god gave 
to their questions. She would place herself over a crack 
in the earth out of which arose a thin stream of gases. 
By breathing these she was made light-headed for the 
moment, and then she was supposed to be able to tell the 
answer which Apollo gave. These answers were called 
"oracles," and though they were often very hard to 
understand, the Greeks thought a great deal of them. 
As Apollo was the most beautiful of all the gods, so 
Aphrodite (or Venus) was the most lovely of the god- 
Greek desses. She was also the gentlest and the 
go ,esses kindest among them. She was called the 
goddess of love and beauty, and the Greeks prayed to her 
to cause the persons whom they cared for to love them in 
return. The queen of the gods was the tall and stately 
Hera (Juno), the wife of Zeus. But the goddess whom 
the Greeks loved best was Athena (called Minerva by 
the Romans). She was the daughter of Zeus, — indeed, 
they believed that she had sprung full-grown from his 
head. They thought of her especially as the goddess of 
wisdom and learning; for she watched over the work of 
men, and helped them to invent better ways of doing things. 



GREECE AND THE GREEKS 




and goddesses 
thought of as 



Character 
of the gods 



They 



STATUE OF APHRODITE (VENUS) 



The gods 
were always 
larger than men 
and more beautiful 
in face and figure, 
remained always the same, 
never growing older or dying, 
as men and women do. They 
were not always good, but 
would often quarrel among 
themselves and sometimes do 
very cruel things. Indeed, 
they were very much like the 
men and women who imag- 
ined them, except that they 
could do wonderful things 
which would have been 
impossible for the people of 
the earth. 

Besides the greater gods, 
the Greeks believed that less 

powerful spirits Lesser 

were all about '""'''' 
them. They thought that the 
trees had guardian spirits whe 
cared for them. Lovely 
maidens, called nymphs, were 
supposed to live in the springs 
and brooks, and even in the 
bright waves of the sea. 
There were spirits, too, who 
lived in the woods, and wan- 
dered among the trees day 
and night; and still others 



8 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

who made their homes upon the mountain sides. The 
Greeks made up many beautiful stories about all of 
these gods and spirits, and were never tired of telling 
and retelling them. 

The Greeks loved their gods, but feared them a little 
also. They tried to gain their good-will by building 
How the beautiful marble temples in their honor, as we 
^ods were build churches, and by offering wine and meat 
and precious things to them. The Greeks also 
held great festivals in their honor. Their greatest festi- 
val was the one which was held in honor of Zeus at a 
place called Olympia. Every four years messengers 
would go about from town to town to give notice of 
this. Then all wars would cease, and people from all 
over Greece would come to Olympia to worship Zeus. 
There the swiftest runners raced for a wreath of olive 
leaves as a prize; and there also chariot races and wres- 
tling matches and other games were held. The Greeks 
believed that Zeus and the other gods loved to see men 
using their strength and skill to do them honor at these 
festivals. So for months and months beforehand, men 
practiced for these games; and the one who gained the 
victory in them was looked upon ever after as the 
favorite of gods and men. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Read the story of Cleon, the Greek boy, in Andrews's Ten Boys. 

2. Find out some stories about the Greek gods named in this 

chapter, such as the stories of Echo, and of Arachne. 

3. Read the story of Prometheus, the god who brought fire to 

man (Harding's Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men, p. 71). 



II 



ACHILLES AND THE WAR 
AGAINST TROY 

Points to be Noted 

Location of Troy; cause of the war between the Greeks and the 

Trojans. 
How the war was carried on; the part taken by the gods. 
How Achilles was made proof against injury; why he withdrew 

from the fighting; why he returned. 
The fate of Hector; the fate of Achilles. 
How the Greeks finally took Troy. 

The stories about their gods were not the only ones 
that the Greeks loved to tell. They were very proud of 
the brave deeds of their ancestors, so many of their 
stories were about the exploits of the heroes from whom 
they thought they were descended. 

One of the most famous of these stories tells of a long 
war of the Greeks with the Trojans. Troy was a rich 
and well-peopled city on the coast of Asia ^ 
Minor, across the Aegean Sea from Greece, the war 

. . began 

Paris, who was one of the sons of King Priam 
of Troy, had run away with Helen, the beautiful wife of 
Menelaus, a Greek king; and this misdeed of the Trojan 
prince naturally led to war. 

King Menelaus and his brother, King Agamemnon, 
called upon all the rulers of Greece to join them in trying 
to get Helen back, and in punishing the siege 
Trojans. After many months a great army ^^^^^^^ 
set sail. When they reached Troy they left their ships, 
and camped in the plains before the walls of the city. 
The Trojans closed their city gates, and came out only 



10 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




m 
>^ 

P3 
P 
H 

fe o 

o ^ 
en o 

o 



THE WAR AGAINST TROY 11 

now and then to fight the Greeks. For many years the 
war dragged on. It seemed as if the Greeks could not 
take the city, and the Trojans could not drive away the 
Greeks. 

In this great war, even the gods took part. iVphrodite 
took the side of Troy, because she had aided Paris in 
carrying off Helen. Hera and Athena both ^^^^ 
took the side of the Greeks. Of the other taken by 

the gods 

gods, some took one side and some the other; 

and long after this the Greeks loved to tell how men 

sometimes fought even against the gods. 

Agamemnon was the leader of the Greeks, but their 
bravest man and their best fighter was Achilles. This 
prince was the son of a goddess of the ocean ^^.^^^^ 
and of a Greek king, and possessed wonderful ^^^j^jjj^^ 
strength and beauty. When he was a baby, 
his goddess mother had dipped him in the waters of a 
dark river in the kingdom of Hades, and he had become 
proof against any weapon except at one little place in 
the heel, where his mother's hand had prevented the 
water from touching him. When Agamemnon and 
Menelaus called upon the men of Greece to fight against 
Troy, Achilles gladly took his shield and spear and joined 
them, although it had been foretold that he should meet 
his death before Troy. There he fought bravely; and 
even Hector, the eldest son of King Priam, and the 
champion of the Trojans, did not dare to stay outside 
the walls while Achilles was in the field. 

In the tenth year of the war, Achilles became very 
angry at a wrong that had been done him by Agamem- 
non. After that, he refused to join in the Achuies's 
fighting, and sat and sulked in his tent. When ^^^^^ 
the Trojans saw that Achilles was no longer in the field, 
they took courage again. Hector and the other Trojan 



12 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

warriors came forth and killed many Greek heroes, and 
soon the Greek army was in full flight. The Trojans 
even succeeded in burning some of the Greek ships. 

Then the Greeks were very much dismayed, and sent 
to Achilles and asked him to help them. But he was 
still angry, and refused. At last the dearest friend of 
Achilles came, and begged him to aid them once more. 
Still Achilles refused, and all that he would do was to 
let his friend take his armor and go in his place. So his 
friend took the armor of Achilles and went forth, think- 
ing that the sight of Achilles 's arms would once more 
set the Trojans flying. It turned out otherwise, and 
soon word was brought to Achilles that Hector had slain 
his friend, and carried off the armor. 

Then Achilles saw that his foolish anger had cost him 
the life of his friend. His grief was very great; and he 
Why he threw himself upon the ground and wept, 

[h'e"fight''* ^^^^^ messengers came to tell him that the 
Trojans were carrying off the body of his 
friend, so that the Greeks might not bury it. Achilles 
sprang to his feet and rushed toward the battle-field, 
without chariot or armor, shouting in his wrath. The 
goddess Athena joined her voice to his; and the sound 
startled the Trojans so that they turned and fled, leaving 
the body of Achilles's friend in the hands of the Greeks. 

Achilles's goddess mother obtained a new suit of 
armor for him from Hephaestus, who was the god of 
Death of metal- working; and next day Achilles rushed 
STchiiles** ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ to avenge his friend. All day 
long the battle raged about the walls of Troy, 
the gods fighting among men to protect and aid their 
favorites. At the end of the day, all the Trojans had 
been driven back within their walls, except Hector. 
After a fierce battle Achilles slew Hector, and then tied 



THE WAR AGAINST TROY 13 

the feet of the dead hero to his chariot and dragged him 
through the dust to the Greek camp. 

Achilles himself did not live much longer. As he was 
fighting one day, soon after this, an arrow shot by 
Paris struck him in the heel, — the one spot where he 
could be wounded, — and he was killed. 

After Achilles was dead, the Greeks could not hope 
to take Troy by open fighting, so they tried a trick. 
They pretended that they were tired of the ^^^ 
long war, and that they were going home. JJ^J*^®" 
They built a wooden horse as tall as a house, 
and leaving that in their camp as an offering to their 
gods, the Greeks got on board their ships and sailed 
away. Then the Trojans came flocking out of their 
city to examine this curious thing which the Greeks 
had left behind. Some of the wiser heads feared the 
wooden horse, and wanted to burn it; but the others 
said that they would take it into the city, and keep 
it as a memorial of their victory over the Greeks. 

So they took the wooden horse within the city walls. 
That night, after the Trojans were all asleep, a door 
opened in its side, and a man slipped out. Destruction 
Then there came another, and then another, ^^'^^^^ 
until about fifty of the bravest Greeks had appeared. 
These slew the guards and opened the city gates. The 
Greeks who had sailed away that morning had come back 
as soon as night fell, and were waiting outside. They 
now rushed into the sleeping city, and soon there were 
only heaps of ruins to show where the city of Troy had 
once stood. 

In that night's fighting King Priam, his queen and 
all of his children, and most of his people were killed. 
King Menelaus found Helen, and took her back again 
to his own country. Paris had brought destruction on 



14 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

his family and on the whole kingdom, and it was right 
that he also should lose his life in the fall of Troy. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Judging from this story, what qualities did the Greeks espe- 

cially admire? 

2. What can you learn from this story concerning Greek ways 

of fighting in the early days? 

3. Let one pupil find out and tell some stories about Heracles 

(Hercules). 

4. Let another do the same for Theseus. 

5. Another may tell the story of Jason and the search for the 

Golden Fleece. 

6. The wanderings of Odysseus (Ulysses) may be told by still 

another pupil. (These stories may all be found in 
Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men). 



Ill I 



SPARTA AND ATHENS 

Points to be Noted 
Difference between myths and history. 

Location of Sparta; her relations with her neighbors; Spartan 
training and its results. 

Location of Athens; occupations of her people; what made 
Athens famous. 

The stories of the gods, and of the warriors who fought 
around Troy, are what we call "myths." They tell about 
things which occurred so very long ago that Difference 
nobody can tell just when they happened, or myrhs^Snd 
how much of the story is true and how much ^'^^^^^y 
is only what people imagined about it. Now you are 
to read about things most of which we are quite sure did 
happen, and which took place very nearly at the time 
and place and in the way that the story says. These 
we call *'history," to distinguish them from myths. 

In historic times there were two great cities in Greece 
named respectively Athens and Sparta. These cities 
were not nearly so large as most modern 
cities, but the deeds of their citizens have made cities of 
them famous for all time. They were only 
one hundred and fifty miles apart, but in their institu- 
tions and in the character of their citizens they were much 
more different than are New York and San Francisco. 
The Spartans had built their city among a people 
whom they had only half conquered, and in addition 
they were surrounded by other peoples with 
whom they had many bitter wars. Because aSd'^the 
their subjects and neighbors were so hostile 
to them, the Spartans had always to be prepared against 



15 



16 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

attacks. Sparta was built in an inland valley, which 
was surrounded by mountains. There were no walls 
or fortifications to protect the city, for it was the Spar- 
tans' proud boast that their warlike citizens made walls 
for defense unnecessary. But the Spartans found that 
it took a long and severe training to make their boys into 
good soldiers, and to keep their men always in readiness 
for war; so Sparta became more like a military camp 
in its ways of living than like an ordinary town. 

When a Spartan boy reached the age of seven years, 
he was taken from his parents and placed with other 
Spartan boys of his age in a great public training-house, 
training There they lived until they became men. 
The boys led a very hard life. Summer and winter they 
had to go barefooted, with only a thin shirt or tunic for 
clothing. At night they slept on beds of rushes which 
they themselves had gathered from the banks of the river 
near by. They had to do all the cooking and other 
work for themselves; and the food which was given them 
was never as much as hungry, growing boys needed, so 
they were forced to hunt and fish to get food. They did 
not study books as you do ; but they were taught running, 
wrestling, boxing, and the use of the spear and sword. 

When the boys became men, they left the training- 
house and were formed into soldier companies. But 
still they had to hve together, eating at the same table 
and sleeping in the same building; and it was not until 
they had become old men, and could no longer serve in 
war, that they were allowed to leave their companies 
and have homes of their own. Thus the men of Sparta 
became strong in body, strict in their habits, and skillful 
in the use of weapons, and were able to conquer all their 
old enemies. Again and again they proved that they 
were the best soldiers in the world at that time. 



SPARTA AND ATHENS 



17 



Unlike Sparta, Athens was situated near the sea, and 
was built about a steep hill, called the Acropolis. This 
proved an excellent place for defense, and as a result 




ATHENS AS IT IS NOW 

The mountain in the background is not the Acropolis, but Mt. Lycabettus 



the Athenians did not need to spend as much time as 
did the Spartans in preparing for war. They were 
brave soldiers, but they were interested in 
many other things besides warfare. Some of and^tJfe 
the Athenians were farmers; others became ®^*"* 
manufacturers and made articles of pottery, glass, leather, 
and various metals. Still others became skillful and daring 



18 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

sailors, guiding their ships to lands as far distant as the 
eastern shores of the Black Sea, and to the coasts of Gaul 
and Spain in the west. Everywhere that the Athenians 
went they traded with the natives, and thus their city 
grew rich and prosperous. It became a great center for 
commerce, with its harbor always full of ships, and its 
market-place thronged with foreign merchants. 

But Athens came also to be widely known for things 
even more important than the skill of her workmen, 
Athenian the daring of her sailors, and the enterprise 
culture ^£ j^^j. traders. Her greatest fame comes from 

the fact that some of the most eminent artists, 
poets, and thinkers that have ever lived, dwelt within 
her walls. Upon the Acropolis, about the market- 
place, and in many other parts of the city stood beautiful 
marble temples and other public buildings. These were 
adorned with statues and sculptured scenes that no artist 
since has ever been able to equal. In her theater, too, 
were acted noble plays, which men read today with 
delight; and the writings of her profound thinkers are 
still attentively studied. In everything which relates 
to beauty, and culture, and wisdom, the Greeks have 
been the teachers of the whole world; and of all the 
Greeks who contributed to this end the Athenians stood 
first. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. How do you account for the difference in character between 

the Athenians and the Spartans? 

2. Why is a city on a hilltop more easily defended than one 

in a plain? 

3. Imagine yourself a Spartan boy and tell how you spend the 

day. 

4. Find out what you can about the life of girls in Athens and 

in Sparta (Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks). 

5. Read an account of Solon, the Athenian lawgiver {Greek Gods, 

Heroes, and Men, p. 133). 



IV 

THE WAR OF THE GREEKS AND 
THE PERSIANS 

Points to be Noted I 

Extent of the Persian empire. ^ 

Why the Athenians helped the Asiatic Greeks; results of their 
sending aid. 

Size of the Persian army at Marathon; why the Greek army 
was not larger. 

Commander of the Athenians; how the victory was won. 
The new King of the Persians; the army which he collected; 
how it crossed the Hellespont. 

On the coasts of Asia Minor, across the Aegean Sea 
from Greece, were many cities which had been founded 
by Greek settlers. These cities had once been 
free, but at the time of this story, which was Persian 
about five hundred years before the birth of ^""^"^ 
Christ, they were under the rule of the Persian King, 
Darius. This King ruled over a vast empire, which 
stretched from the Aegean Sea eastward as far as India, 
a distance almost as great as from New York to San 
Francisco. 

After seme time these Greek cities rebelled against 
the rule of King Darius; and the Athenians, who thought 
it a shame for their kinsmen to be subjects and 
not free men, sent help to them. In the war rebemous ^ 
which followed, the Athenians burnt one of 
the King's cities. When Darius heard this, he asked, 
"Who are these Athenians?" for he had never heard 
of them before. 

Then when he was told who they were, he called for 
his bow, and placing an arrow on the string, he shot it 
high up into the air and prayed to the Persian god: 



20 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

*' Grant me, O God, that I may revenge myself on the 
Athenians!" And ever after that, as long as the King 
lived, he had a servant stand behind him at dinner-time 
and say three times, — 

'* Master, remember the Athenians!" 

When the King's troops were ready, he sent them on 

board ships, and they sailed across the sea to destroy 

Athens and to conquer all Greece. There 

tionsfor wcrc morc than a hundred thousand men in 

war 

the army ; and when the Athenians heard that 
so many enemies were coming they were very much 
frightened, for they did not have nearly so large an army. 
They sent a swift runner, named Pheidippides, to Sparta, 
to ask the Spartans to help them. But the Spartans sent 
back word that they could not come until the moon had 
reached the full ; for their laws forbade them to send out 
an army until then, and they dared not break their laws. 

When the Athenians heard this they were very much 
disturbed; for the Persians had now landed on their 
shores, and were only a few miles from their city. Yet 
they sent out their army to meet them; and as they 
inarched, a thousand soldiers came and joined them 
from a little town near Athens, which the Athenians had 
befriended. 

Even then the Persians had ten times as many men as 
the Athenians had. Some of the Athenian generals 
Miitiades Wanted to go back, and some wanted to go 
commands f^^ward; and when they voted on it they 
Athenians fo^^d that the generals were just evenly 
divided. Then one of the generals, named Miitiades, 
made a speech to the others, and he spoke so well that 
they decided to do as he wished, and to fight; and all 
the other generals, when their time came to command, 
gave up their turn to Miitiades. 



THE GREEKS AND THE PERSIANS ^21 

The battle took place in a narrow plain called Mara- 
thon, between the mountains and the sea. When 
Miltiades thought that the time had come to 
fight, he led his men out of camp, and charged Marathon 
upon the Persians. The latter were so 
crowded together that they could not use all their men. 
The Greeks fought, too, as they had never fought before ; 
for they knew that they were fighting for their homes, 
and for their wives and little children, who would be 
sold as slaves if their husbands and fathers were defeated. 
So it was not long before the Persians, in spite of their 
many men, began to give way ; then they began to break 
ranks, and soon they were running as fast as they could 
to their ships, with the Athenians following them. 

It was a glorious victory for the Athenians. The 
Persians were so discouraged that when they got on 
their ships again they turned about and sailed away for 
Asia Minor. This was the end of the first attempt of 
the Persians to conquer the Greeks. 

You can imagine how angry King Darius was when he 
heard that the Athenians had beaten his fine army at 
Marathon. But he was now busy with other xerxes 
matters, and he died before he could renew PerS* 
the war. His son, Xerxes, was not nearly so ^*"^ 
good a soldier as Darius had been; nevertheless, he 
decided to go on with the war and to lead the army him- 
self. 

Xerxes was a vain and foolish man, and wanted his 
army to be the largest that the world had ever seen. So 
men came from all parts of his empire at his 
command, — black men, white men, and brown led by 
men; some clothed in the skins of foxes, 
leopards, and lions, and others in flowing robes, glittering 
with gold and jewels; some armed with brass helmets, 



22 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

large shields, long spears, and daggers; others with 
helmets of wood, small shields, and bows and arrows; 
and some with nothing for weapons but long sticks, with 
the ends sharpened and hardened in the fire. Nobody 
knows how many men there were in this army, but there 
must have been hundreds of thousands. 

The army was so great that Xerxes could not get 
enough ships to carry it to Greece; so he was obliged 
Crossing ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^- ^^ a placc Called the Helles- 
HeUespont P^^^ ^^^^ ^ uarrow strait separates Europe 
from Asia, and here it was that Xerxes decided 
to cross. Thousands of slaves were set to work building 
bridges made of boats fastened together. When all 
was ready the great army began to move; and though 
there were two bridges, and the crossing continued 
without a stop, seven days and seven nights passed 
before the last man was on the other side. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find out more about the story of Pheidippides. (Read 

Browning's poem about him.) 

2. Why was it better for the Athenians to go out to meet the 

Persians at Marathon than to wait for them to attack the 
city itself? 

3. Compare the empire ruled over by Darius with that later 

ruled by Alexander the Great (see map, p. 42). Which 
was the larger? 



THE BATTLES OF THERMOPYLAE 
AND SALAMIS 

Points to be Noted 

The pass of Thermopylae; how it was defended; heroism of 
Leonidas and his Spartans; how the Persians took the pass. 

How Themistocles explained the oracle; the burning of Athens. 

Why Xerxes could not reach Sparta; how Themistocles forced 
the Greeks to fight at Salamis. 

The battle of Salamis; the manner of fighting; advantages of 
the Greeks. 

Whj^ Xerxes gave up the war. 

When the Greeks heard that King Xerxes was march- 
ing against them with so large an army, they were 
greatly frightened. Some of them sent him xerxes 
earth and water, as he commanded them, Gr^ece^ 
showing that they gave up their land to him; '^^* ^'^'^ 
but the Athenians and the Spartans said that they 
would die before they would become the King's slaves. 

In the northern part of Greece there was a place, 
called the pass of Thermopylae, where the mountains 
came down almost to the sea, leaving only a narrow road 
between. Through this the King's army must go to 
reach Athens and Sparta; and since the pass was so 
narrow, the Greeks thought that they might stop the 
Persians there and so save their country. 

It was decided that the Athenians, who were the best 
sailors in Greece, should fight the King's ships on the sea, 
while the Spartans guarded the pass of Ther- xhe 
mopylae. But just at that time there was a Iher-^"^ ^* 
great festival among the Spartans in honor of "^^^^^^^ 
the god Apollo; and although King Xerxes was already 



24 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

marching against their land, they did not wish to sHght 
the worship of their god. The result was that they sent 
to Thermopylae only three hundred Spartans, under 
the command of Leonidas, telling him that they would 
send more when the festival was over. With these 
three hundred men and a few hundred more that he got 
elsewhere, Leonidas had to face the many thousands 
that Xerxes led, for the other Spartans did not come 
until after the battle was over. 

When Xerxes came in sight of the pass, he found the 
Spartans amusing themselves with gymnastic exercises, 
and combing their long hair. When he sent to them, 
and ordered them to give up their arms, they sent back 
word for him to "come and take them." One of the 
Spartans was told that the number of the Persians was 
so great that when they shot their arrows into the air 
they hid the sun like a cloud. "So much the better," 
said he, "for then we shall fight in the shade." 

After waiting four days for the Spartans to surrender, 
Xerxes at last sent some of his men to make prisoners 
of them, and bring them to him. But this they could 
not do. All that day and all the next day the King's 
army fought against the Spartans; and though some 
of the Spartans and many of the Persians were killed, 
the Spartans would not let the King go through the 
pass. 

At the end of the second day, however, a Greek 
traitor told King Xerxes of a path which led over the 
How th mountain and around the pass. By this he 

pass was was able to send men to the rear of the Greeks, 

taken 

and so attack them from both sides. Leonidas 
now knew that the end had come. He sent away the 
men who were not Spartans; but he and his men fought 
on, for it was considered a disgrace for a Spartan to 



THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMTS 25 

surrender. Not until the last Spartan in the pass was 
killed could King Xerxes lead his army through. 

After the war was over, the Greeks placed a marble 
lion, in honor of King Leonidas, on the little mound 
where the Spartans had made their last fight. Near by 
another monument was set up in honor of his followers, 
and on it these words were cut: — 

"Go, stranger, and to the Spartans tell 
That here, obeying their commands, we fell." 

From Thermopylae, King Xerxes and his army 
marched down into Greece, punishing the people of all 
the places that had refused to send him earth Athenians 
and water. At Athens the people were in ?he o^lc?e 
great fear. They knew that their turn would ^^ ^^^^^' 
come next, and that the King would punish them more 
severely than any of the other Greeks. They sent to 
the oracle at Delphi and asked, — 

"O Apollo! how may we save Athens from the wrath 
of Xerxes?" But the priestess only answered, — 

"Nothing can now save your city; yet when all is lost, 
a wooden wall shall shelter the Athenians." 

This saying puzzled the Athenians very much. It 
was some comfort to know that, though their city was 
to be destroyed, they were to be saved. But Themis- 
where was the "wooden wall" that Apollo Spillns 
said should shelter them? Some thought it ^^^^^^-^^^^ 
meant one thing, and some thought it meant another. 
At last a quick-witted Athenian, named Themistocles, 
said, — 

"The wooden wall means our ships. If we leave our 
city and fight the Persians on the water we shall win the 
battle. That is what Apollo promises us. Will you do it?" 



20 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Themistocles spoke so well that the people agreed to 
do what he advised. When Xerxes came, they went on 
board their ships and left the city to the Persians, who 
pulled down the walls, and burned the city. Then 
Xerxes wished to go on to Sparta and punish it also. 
The only way to reach that city was by marching along 
the narrow isthmus which joined the northern part 
of Greece to the southern; and this he could not do 
until he had driven away the Greek ships which were 
near it. 

These ships were in a narrow strait between an island, 
called Salamis, and the shore. The Greeks had only 
The one-third as many ships as the Persians had; 

SaTamls^" ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ the Persian ships row up to 
the end of the strait they were very much 
frightened. Only the Athenians were brave and fearless. 
To keep the other Greek ships from slipping away in the 
night, Themistocles sent a message to Xerxes, pretending 
to be his friend. 

"If you want to keep the Greeks from getting away,'* 
the messenger told the King, "you must send some of 
your ships around the island, and shut up the other end 
of the strait." 

This seemed sensible, so Xerxes did as Themistocles 
advised. The next morning the battle began. When 
The battle the trumpet sounded, the Greeks rowed for- 

a amis ^^^^ ^^^ ^^j^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Persian ships 

and sink them. As the ships came near one another, 
each side threw spears and shot arrows at the other side. 
Sometimes a ship would get alongside a ship of the 
enemy; then soldiers would spring upon the deck of the 
other boat, and they would fight with swords just as 
they did on land. 



THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 



27 




28 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

All day long the fight went on. There were two 
things that were in favor of the Greeks, and which helped 
Victory ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ victory. There were so 

Greeks ^^^^ Persian ships that they were all crowded 

together in the narrow strait, and could not 
get out of the way when they saw a Greek ship coming. 
Besides this, the Greeks were fighting for their homes, 
while the Persians were fighting only because their King 
had ordered them to; so the Greeks fought the better. 
At last, after a great many of the Persian ships had been 
sunk, the rest turned and fled. The Greeks had won the 
victory, and Themistocles was the one who had helped 
them most to gain it. 

During all the fight King Xerxes had sat on a golden 
throne on a hill near the strait. He was very angry 
Xerxes ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ '^^^P^ A^^' ^nd he had many of 

fh^wa? ^^^ captains put to death. But, as he was a 
coward at heart, he was a little afraid. 
Suppose the Greeks should send their ships up to the 
Hellespont, and destroy his bridges of boats, how would 
he and his army get back to Persia.^ Besides he had 
punished the Athenians by burning their city; and that, 
he said, was the chief thing he had come to do. So the 
King gave up his plan to conquer Greece, and when 
the next morning came he was already on his march 
homeward. 

This was not the end of the Persian wars, but it was 
the turning point. Twice the Persians had seemed just 
about to conquer Greece, and both times they had failed. 
The first time they had failed because Miltiades had 
fought so bravely against them at Marathon. The second 
time it was Themistocles who had prevented them by his 
skill in bringing about the battle at Salamis. After this 
the Persians were never again to have the chance to 



THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 29 

conquer Greece; and when next we shall read about 
them, we shall see how they themselves were conquered 
by the Greeks in their own land. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Trace on the map the march of Xerxes from the Hellespont 

(see p. xvi). 

2. Did the Spartans do right in remaining at Thermopylae after 

they could no longer keep back the Persians? Give 
reasons for your answer. 

3. Describe a Greek warship (see picture on p. 10). 

4. Why was Themistocles so anxious to fight the Persians at 

Salamis? 

5. Does Athens or Sparta deserve the greater credit for saving 

Greece from the Persians? Why? 



VI 
ATHENS UNDER PERICLES 

Points to be Noted 

How the Athenians governed themselves. 

What made Pericles their leader; his object. 

Description of Athens; the temples and statues on the Acropolis. 

After the Persians had been driven out of the land, 
the Athenians rebuilt their ruined city. It soon grew to 
Leadership be richer and more powerful than it had ever 
(444!429^^ been, and became the chief city of all Greece. 
^'^'^ A man named Pericles then became the head of 

their government. He was not a king, for the Athenians 
had a democratic government; that is, each citizen took 
part in the making of laws and in selecting the officers of 
the city. Pericles had the chief power in the city because 
he was so eloquent, so patriotic, and so wise that he was 
almost always able to persuade the people to vote for 
what he thought was best for Athens. He was a greater 
leader than Themistocles, because he not only knew 
how to govern and to make war, but also how to make 
his city noble and beautiful. It was to make Athens 
surpass all other cities in these ways, as well as in wealth 
and power, that he set himself especially to work. 

The government of Athens was closely connected 
with a hill called the Pnyx, which stood within the city 
Govern- walls. On its slopiug sides the citizens 
ment of assembled about four times each month to 

Athens 

listen to speeches, to vote on new laws, and to 
elect city officers. The citizens were paid a small sum 
for attending this assembly, and when they were all 



ATHENS UNDER PERICLES 



31 




32 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

together they numbered about thirty thousand. On 
the top of the hill was a small platform, on which the 
orators stood when they spoke to the people either for 
or against any measure which was proposed. 

More important than the Pnyx was the steep flat- 
topped hill of the Acropolis, for it was the center of the 
worship of the gods. 

In olden times the Acropolis had been the fort of the 
Athenians, but even before the Persians came, there had 
been a temple to the goddess Athena on it. This had 
been burned during the war. Now Pericles planned 
to build in its place not one, but many, temples; and it 
was on this steep hill that the beautiful buildings sprang 
up which have made his name famous in all times and 
in all countries. 

Imagine yourself an Athenian boy, and that your 
father is taking you up this hill to the great festival of 
the goddess Athena. Only on one side can 
on*the"^^ the hill be climbed, and up this the road winds 
Acropo s ^^^ turns till it reaches the top. There you 
come to a gateway or porch of the finest marble, with 
great tall columns supporting the roof. On the left is 
a building with rooms filled with pictures and other 
precious things. Going through the gateway you come 
out on the top of the hill. Beyond the city you see the 
blue sea gleaming in the distance. All about you, you 
see temples and statues. Here is a beautiful temple to 
the goddess of Victory. There is a row of statues in 
honor of heroes, or of Athenian citizens who have won 
the prize in the games at Olympia. Not far away is a 
great statue of Athena, the guardian of the city. This 
statue is taller than the tallest house, and is made out 
of the swords and shields taken from the Persians at 
Marathon. From far away at sea the sailors can see 



ATHENS UNDER PERICLES 



38 



the tip of her spear, and when they do they know that 
they are nearing home. 

Not far from this statue is a temple 
to Poseidon, the god of the sea. In it 
is a well of salt water, which your father 
tells you gushed forth when Poseidon 
once struck the rock with his trident. 
Coming out of this temple, you walk 
through a beautiful porch. In this the 
roof is held up, not by columns, but 
by the statues of six young 
maidens, clothed in long flow- 
ing garments (see p. 46). 

You hurry past these beau- 
tiful buildings, so that you 
may not miss the Temple 
best part of the ^^ Athena 
festival. You hasten over to 
the highest part of the hill, 
and there you come to 
the largest and most 
beautiful temple of all, 
called the Parthenon. 
It is the most beautiful 
building that the world 
has ever seen. It is the 
temple of Athena, the 
"maiden goddess." All 
around it are rows of tall 
marble columns. Within 
it is a statue of the god- 
dess, which reaches almost 
to the roof; and in her 

STATUE OF ATHENA IN THE • w i i • i i i i-^^i 

PARTHENON rigut hand is held a little 




34 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

figure of Victory. The statue is made of ivory and pure 
gold, and is equaled in beauty and richness only by the 
great statue of Zeus at Olympia. All about the temple 
are the finest carvings. Here they represent the birth of 
Athena from the head of father Zeus. There they show 
the Athenians fighting with the strange creatures, half 
horse and half man, called centaurs. Here is a long 
series of carvings showing the great procession of 
Athenian youths, some on horseback, some on foot, com- 
ing to celebrate the festival of Athena. And as you 
gaze at them, longing for the time when you, too, may 
take part in the worship of the goddess, suddenly you 
hear your father call,— 

"Look, look, my son!" 

Then you turn about and look, and there, just coming 
through the gates and entering upon the top of the hill, 
you see the procession itself which you have climbed 
the hill to watch. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Point out in the picture of the Acropolis on p. 31 the build- 

ings described in this chapter. 

2. What differences do you notice between the way that Athens 

was governed and tlie way that an American city is 
governed? 



VII 
SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER 

Points to be Noted 

Athens the home of great thinkers; what a philosopher is. 
The reply of the oracle; what Socrates found out; how he 
taught. 

Why Socrates was hated; his trial, his life in prison, and his 
death. 

Athens in the time of Pericles was the home not only 
of the artists who built the temples and carved the 
sculptures on the Acropolis, but also of some 
of the greatest thinkers of the whole world, philosopher 
One of the most noted of these Greek thinkers, 
who however lived some time after the death of Pericles, 
was the philosopher Socrates. 

Have you not at times wondered what the world is, 
and what it is made of; what we are here for, and how 
we ought to spend our lives? A man who thinks a great 
deal about questions like these, and tries to find reason- 
able answers to them, we call a philosopher. Socrates 
is famous for the wise answers which he found to many 
such Cj[uestions. 

When Socrates was a young man lie had a friend who 
admired him very much, and thought that even then he 
was the wisest person whom he knew. So, 
once when this friend was at Delphi, he asked as a young 
the oracle if there was any one wiser than 
Socrates, and the oracle answered that there was not. 
When he came home and told Socrates what the oracle 
had said, Socrates was very much astonished. He 
was sure that there must be some mistake, for he knew 



36 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

that he was not wise. He was quite sure that the oracle 
must mean something else. 

So Socrates set to work to show that there were other 
men in Athens who were wiser than he. First, he came 
to one of the men who were governing the city at that 
time, and who was looked upon as very wise. *'Ii I can 
only show that he is wiser than I am," said Socrates 
to himself, "then I can prove that the oracle means 
something else." 

Therefore Socrates asked this man a great many 
questions. But he found that the man was not wise 
at all, though he thought that he knew everything. So 
Socrates came away, saying, — 

"At any rate, I am wiser than that man. Neither of 
us knows anything that is great and good; but he think.^ 
that he does, while I Jxnow that I do not. So I am that 
much wiser than he is." 

Then Socrates went to others who were thought to be 
wise, and things always turned out in the same manner. 
He found that the men who were considered to be the 
wisest were often the very ones that knew the least 
about the things that were the most worth knowing 
about. But whenever he tried to make them see this, 
they grew angry with him. 

At length Socrates saw what the oracle meant by 
saying that there was no one wiser than he. But he 
His grew so interested in his search that he spent 

questions ^jj j^j^ ^^^^ -^^ ^Yie markct-placc, and in other 
spots where crowds were to be found. And whenever he 
met with a man who thought that he was wise, he would 
question him, and ask him what goodness was, and what 
bravery was, and why some people were good and some 
were bad. In this way he would try to show that no 
one was really wise. 



SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER 37 

Now, you can readily guess that people did not like 
this. No one likes to have another person prove to him 
how little he knows. So Socrates offended Trial of 
many people, and made them dislike him. ^^^^^^^^ 
After this had gone on for some time, the enemies of 
Socrates determined to try to get rid of him. They 
brought a charge against him in the court, saying, — 

"Socrates offends against the laws by not paying 
respect to the gods that the city respects, and by bring- 
ing in new gods; and also by leading the young men into 
bad habits." 

Though this charge was unjust, Socrates was found 
guilty in spite of all that his friends could do. When the 
judges called upon him to say what punishment he 
deserved, Socrates bravely answered, — 

"Instead of punishment, O Athenians, I deserve a 
reward; and if you ask me what it is, I say that I ought 
to be supported by the state as long as I live, just as 
those who win in the Olympic games are supported; for 
I am more worthy of honor than they are." 

This saying angered his enemies still more, and they 
then voted that he should be put to death. But accord- 
ing to their laws a whole month must pass He refuses 
by before this could be done. During this ^^ escape 
time he lived in prison, where he spent his time talking to 
his friends, who were allowed to visit him. One day they 
told him that they had made arrangements for him to 
escape from the prison and fly to some other city, where 
he would be safe. But Socrates refused. The laws, he 
said, condemned him to death; and it was his duty, as 
a good citizen, to obey them even in that. 

At last the day came for his death, and all his friends 
gathered weeping about him. Socrates took the poisoned 
cup of hemlock which was given him, calmly and cheer- 



38 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

fully, and drank it down as though it had been water. 
Then, bidding good-bye to his friends, he lay down on 
His death his couch, and soon he was dead. There is 
(399 B.C.) ^^^ saying especially of Socrates that ought 
always to be remembered. This is it: "Nothing evil 
can happen to a good man, either while he is living or 
after he is dead; nor are the gods unmindful of his 
affairs." 



Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find out what you can of Socrates's famous pupil, Plato. 

2. Was Socrates right in submitting to unjust punishment? 

3. Memorize his saying, at the end of this chapter. 



VIII 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT 

Points to be Noted 

War between the Greek cities; their conquest by Philip of 

Macedonia; Philip's plan. 
Alexander's boyhood; how he managed his kingdom. 
His defeat of the Persians; his march to the East; his plans for 

his empire. 
Alexander's death; what became of his empire. 

We have seen how the Athenians and Spartans had 
joined together in the wars against the Persians. But 
when all danger from the Persians was past, The Greeks 
and Athens became so great and powerful, by^Phnip^of 
Sparta grew very jealous of her; and this ^^^^^^^^^ 
jealousy finally led to a great war between the two 
cities. Most of the other cities of Greece took part in 
the war, some on one side, and some on the other. When 
at last the war was over, Athens was no longer the rich 
and powerful city she had been. She had lost her fleet, 
most of the subject lands over which she had ruled, and 
many thousands of her citizens. From this time on 
there were many wars between the Greek cities, until 
at length they all became so weak and exhausted with 
fighting, that it was an easy matter for a King who lived 
to the north of Greece to come down and conquer them 
all. This King was named Philip, and he ruled over the 
country called Macedonia. 

When King Philip had conquered the Greeks, he 
treated them kindly. He told them that he was planning 
to go on into Asia and conquer the Persians, Phiup's 
and the Greeks willingly agreed to help ^^^" 
him. But before Philip could carry out his plans 

39 



40 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



he died, and his son Alexander became King in his 
place. 

Alexander soon showed that he was even a greater 
man than his father had been. While he was still a boy, 




STATUE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 

a beautiful but wild and high-spirited horse had been 
brought to his father's court. None of the Alexander 

^ ^ ^ tames a 

King's men could manage it; and Philip wild horse 
was about to send it away when Alexander said, — 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 41 

"I could manage that horse better than those men do." 

The King heard what his son said, and gave him per- 
mission to try it. Alexander ran forward, and took 
the horse by the bridle. He had noticed that the horse 
seemed to be afraid of the motion of his shadow, so he 
iurned him directly toward the sun. Then he stroked 
him gently with his hand until he became quiet. 

When this was accomplished Alexander gave one quick 
leap and was on the horse's back, and in a little while 
he was riding him quietly about the yard. King Philip 
was so pleased that he gave him the horse for his 
own, and in later years it carried him safely through 
many battles. Alexander was so fond of this horse 
that when it died, he built it a splendid monument. 

Alexander was only twenty years old when he became 
King, but he soon showed that he could manage his 
kingdom as well as he could his horses. Be- „ 

He subdues 

cause the Kmg was so young, the peoples his 
whom his father had conquered thought that 
they could now win back their freedom. But Alexander 
marched swiftly from one end of the kingdom to the other, 
and everything was soon quiet again. The young King 
then prepared to carry out his father's plans, and make war 
on the Persians. Soon he gathered an army of Macedon- 
ians and Greeks, and with this he crossed over into Asia. 
Alexander fought three great battles with the Persians; 
and, although the King of the Persians had twenty times 
as many men as Alexander had, Alexander , . 

Ill ^ , 1 , n^i . H*s battles 

won all three ol the battles. This was with the 
partly because the Greeks and the Mace- 
donians were so much better soldiers than the Persians; 
but also it was because the Persian King was such a 
poor general and such a coward. Almost before the 
fight had begun, the Persian King would leave his chariot. 



42 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




ALEXANDER THE GREAT 



43 



mount a horse, and gallop away; and of course his 
soldiers would not fight after their leader had fled. 

After the third battle, the Persian King was killed by 
some of his own men, as he was trying to get farther and 
farther away from Alexander. Alexander Alexander's 
then himself became ruler of the mighty ^^^^^^^^^ 
empire of the Persians. Besides Persia itself, he got 
Palestine, where the Jews lived, and Egypt, which was 
older and richer than any of the other countries. After 
he had won these countries, Alexander marched far 




ALEXANDER DEFEATING THE PERSIANS 

(From a Greek mosaic) 

eastward into Asia, looking for other lands to conquer. 
On and on he marched, for many months, over moun- 
tains and burning deserts and fertile plains. He found 
many strange lands, and conquered many strange peoples. 
But still he urged his army on, until they began to 
fear that they would never see their homes again. 

At last they reached India, which you know Columbus 
tried to reach by sailing around the world in the other 
direction. Here Alexander's army refused to go farther, 
and he was forced, much against his will, to turn about 
and return to Persia. 



44 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

But you must not think of Alexander as only a great 
conqueror. He was a great explorer as well, and where- 
ever he went he gathered specimens of strange Alexander 
plants and animals, and sent them back to »^ ^ *'"*«'" 
learned men in Greece. And since he also sent back 
accounts of the lands which he conquered, you will see 
that he added a great deal to what men then knew about 
the world. He was also a wise ruler, and founded many 
new cities in Asia and in Egypt. After he had returned 
from India, his mind was full of plans for making one 
great empire out of the many countries over which he 
ruled. The capital of this empire was to be in Persia; 
and the Greeks, the Macedonians, the Jews, the Egyp- 
tians, and the people of India were all to have part in it. 

But while he was full of these plans, he suddenly 

became ill of a fever, and died. He was only thirty- 

His death two years old ; yet he had been King for nearly 

"* thirteen years, and had done more wonderful 

things than any other King ever did either before or since. 

After Alexander died, there was no one to rule over 
his vast empire, and it soon fell to pieces. The Mace- 
^ , donians continued to rule over the Greeks for 

Greeks 

Alexander ^^^^^ than a hundred years; then, when they 
lost their power, there was another people 
ready to step in, and to take their place as rulers of the 
Greeks. So the old Greeks never got back their freedom ; 
and since a people who are not free seldom have noble 
thoughts, or do noble deeds, the Greeks never again 
became as great as they had been in the glorious days of 
Themis tocles i nd Pericles. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Trace Alexander's march on the map (p. 42). 

2. What is the difference between an empire and a kingdom? 

3. Why should Alexander be called "the Great"? 



IX 
THE SPREAD OF GREEK CULTURE 

Points to be Noted 

Influence of the Greeks on the world of today. 

How Greek culture was spread; Greek cities on the Mediter- 
ranean coast; founding of Greek cities in the East. 

Alexandria; its commerce and wealth; its schools and library. 

Koman conquest of Greek cities; how the Romans learned from 
the Greeks. 

Though the Greeks lost their freedom, the benefits of 
their achievements were not lost to the world. In 
almost every great school in Europe and ^^ 
America today, the works of poets such as Greece has 

'^ ^ , given us 

Homer, who sung about the Trojan war, are 
still read with delight. The teachings of Greek philos- 
ophers, like Socrates, still influence the thought and ac- 
tion of men. There is scarcely a modern city in which 
many of the finest buildings are not modeled, wholly 
or in part, after the great temples on the Acropolis. And 
on the walls of homes and schoolrooms all over this 
country are to be seen photographs and plaster casts of 
the masterpieces of Greek sculpture. 

Let us see how it was that Greek knowledge and 
wisdom and art were passed on to other peoples, and so 
handed down to us through the many centuries which 
lie between us and the Greeks. 

We have seen how skillful and daring the Athenian 
sailors were. Those of many other Greek cities were 
no less enterprising. Long before the Persian Greek 
wars began, therefore, thousands of Greeks ^^ **"**^ 
had found new homes for themselves in distant 

45 



46 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



lands, and Greek cities dotted the coasts of Asia 
Minor, Italy, and Sicily, and lined the shores of the 
Aegean and Black Seas. The Greeks showed good 
judgment in selecting locations for their towns, and many 
great seaports of the present day stand on the sites of 
ancient Greek colonies. Among these are Marseilles 




A TEMPLE ON THE ACROPOLIS (Erechtheum) 



in France, Naples in Italy, Syracuse in Sicily, and Con- 
stantinople in Turkey. 

The Greeks in the colonies kept the religion, language, 
and customs of their mother country; and the less civil- 
ized peoples among whom they settled learned from 
them their better ways of living. When Alexander con- 
quered the East, he too founded many cities, and the 
rulers who came after him followed his example. In 



SPREAD OF GREEK CULTURE 47 

this way the Greeks became the teachers of the East 
as well as of the West. 

Alexandria, in Egypt, was the most famous of all the 
cities founded by Alexander the Great. It stands at 
the mouth of the Nile River, and was in Alexandria, 
ancient times, what it still is today, a great commerce"' 
commercial center. Ships from all over the ^"** ^^^^^^ 
Mediterranean came to its harbor, river boats brought 
to it the produce of the fertile Nile Valley, and caravans 
connected it with Asiatic cities, and with ports on the 
Red Sea from which commerce was carried on with far- 
off India. It became very rich as a result of this trade, 
and was adorned with magnificent temples and public 
buildings. 

One group of these buildings formed something like 
a modern college or university. The chief building was 
the library, in which was housed the largest 
collection of books in ancient times, number- and 
ing more than five hundred thousand. You 
must remember that the books in those days were very 
different from those of our own day. They were written 
by hand, usually upon parchment made from sheepskin, 
or upon paper made from the papyrus plant; and they 
were then rolled around two sticks, as you may see in 
the picture on page 102. Besides the library there were 
in Alexandria observatories for watching the stars, and 
botanical and zoological gardens for studying plants and 
animals; and there were also great halls at which scholars 
lived at the public expense. Learned men came to 
Alexandria from all over the known world to study and 
to write books. It was here that the Jews translated 
the Old Testament into Greek, because that was the 
language which could then be read by educated men 
everywhere; and it was here that the scholars lived- 



48 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

who first studied and discussed the writings of the New 
Testament. Here, too, lived Ptolemy, a Greek writer 
on geography, who taught that the earth is a globe. 
His book, as we shall see, helped Columbus, long after- 
wards, to discover the New World. 

In the course of time, all the lands in which the Greeks 
lived were conquered by the Romans. The conquerors 
The carried cff to Rome many of the most precious 

Romans . i y-i i • • i 

adopt thmgs m the Greek cities, such as statuary, 

culture vases, and books. These helped the Romans, 

who were a strong and warlike but rather rude and 
uncultured people, to appreciate Greek art and learning. 
It became the custom for Roman young men who could 
afford to do so to go to some Greek city, such as Athens 
or Alexandria, to complete their education, just as many 
American young men and women go to Europe for the 
same purpose. Thus it was that the Romans learned 
Greek culture; and later we shall see what they added 
to this culture, and how they in turn passed it on to 
other peoples. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. What pictures of Greek buildings and statues have you seen? 

2. Study the picture on page 46, and find buildings in your 

town which show similar columns, ornaments, etc. 

3. Locate on a map the modern cities which were first settled 

by the Greeks. 

4. Write a description of a Greek library. 

5. The followers of Christ wrote the New Testament in Greek. 

Why did they do so? 



! 

X 

EARLY DAYS OF ROME 

Points to be Noted 

The peninsula of Italy; its location, form, climate, surface, 

rivers, early towns. 
Eome; its location, and the story of its founding. 
Growth of Rome under the kings. 

A republic established; its government; Horatius at the bridge. 
The two classes in Rome; rights denied the plebeians; their 

struggle for full citizenship; its results. 

Turn again to your map of Europe, and look once 
more at the three peninsulas which extend from it into 
the Mediterranean Sea. Greece, the smallest 
and most eastern one, we already know as the peninsula 
home of the great men about whose deeds we '^ *^ ^ 
have just been reading. Many Greeks, you will remem- 
ber, sailed to the west and founded new cities on the 
southern coasts of Italy. It is to that peninsula that 
we must now turn our attention. 

In form, Italy is long and slender, being shaped much 
like a huge boot. You will see it on the map, lying in 
the midst of the Mediterranean, its toe to the south and 
its heel to the east. Its central position gave its people 
an advantage over others in carrying on trade, and 
helped them also to conquer and rule the Mediterranean 
world. 

To the north of Italy is a high chain of mountains, 
called the Alps, which protect its sunny plains from 
the cold north winds, while the sea about it its 
is warmed by the hot currents of air from the *="™^^« 
deserts of Africa. The winters in Italy are therefore 
milder, and the summers warmer, than with us, so that 



50 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



the orange and olive grow there in latitudes in which 
our country produces only pears and apples. 



U E Z) J 







South of the Alps lies the broad plain of the River Po, 
the largest stream of Italy. The valley of the Po is 

in turn separated from the rest of Italy by 
tains and the loug range of the Apennine Mountains. 

These sweep across the peninsula from west 
to east, and extend southward to the toe of the boot, 



EARLY DAYS OF ROME 51 

dividing Italy into an eastern and a western slope. The 
western slope is longer and more gentle than the eastern; 
and it is divided about midway by the Tiber, the only 
river, south of the valley of the Po, which is deep enough 
throughout the year to float boats and small ships. 

From early times this western slope of Italy was 
dotted with little towns. These were always built on a 
hill, or in some high situation that could 

. Early 

easily be defended against an enemy. There towns 

. . in Italy 

the settlers placed their fort, or citadel, and 
the rest of the town clustered about it. The people went 
out into the surrounding country to cultivate their farms 
and tend their cattle, but to this spot they always re- 
treated in time of danger. Every town lived more or 
less to itself, obeying its own King, fighting its own 
battles, and controlling a few miles of land about it. 

In very early times such a town lay on the south bank 
of the Tiber, about twenty miles from the sea. It was 
called Rome, and at first was probably not very different 
from many other towns in Italy. As time went on, 
however, it became much greater than its neighbors. 
It conquered first the cities that lay nearest to it, then 
those farther and farther away, until it had made the 
whole of Italy its own. After this it reached out and 
conquered all the countries about the Mediterranean, 
and, in a certain sense, became what it has often been 
called, "the Mistress of the World." 

We do not know just when, or how, or by whom the 
beginning of Rome was made; for there was so little 
writing, in those early days, that no account given at 
the time has come down to us. But, like the Greeks, 
the Romans of later days made up many stories of the 
early years of their city, which they accepted as true 
and have handed down to us. 



52 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



According to these stories, the first settlers at Rome 
came from a Httle city near by, under the leadership 
of twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. When 




ATTENDANTS UPON A KING OR CONSUL 

The outer gown which they wear is called a toga 



babies, they had been set afloat in their cradle upon 
Romulus the Tiber River by the order of their wicked 
and Remus ^^^^^ rj.^^^ ^^^ drifted ashorc at a place 

where seven low hills rose upon the southern bank of 



EARLY DAYS OF ROME C3 

the stream, and had been cared for by a wolf and a 
woodpecker until a shepherd found them. When they 
grew to manhood, they returned with a band of followers 
to found a city upon the Palatine, the hill at whose foot 
they had been rescued. 

Romulus became the first King of the city, and six 
kings ruled after him. Under these rulers the city 
grew, until all seven hills were occupied, and 

Growth of 

were surrounded by a great wall. Roman Rome under 

the kin^s 

lands outside the city were increased, bit by 
bit, through conquests from their neighbors; so that, 
in the time of the last King, Roman territory extended 
along the southern bank of the Tiber to the sea, and for 
about the same distance up the river from Rome. Just 
across from Rome they had fortified a hill as an outpost 
against their neighbors, the Etruscans. 

The seventh King was so cruel and proud that the 
people turned against him, and drove him and all his 
family from the city. They then set up a a republic 
republic, and took an oath that they would ^^^^^'^^^^^d 
never again allow any one to become King in Rome. 
They agreed that two men, called consuls, should be 
elected each year; and these consuls, with a Senate made 
up of three hundred men from the oldest and noblest 
families of Rome, ruled in the place of the kings. 

The banished King was not willing to give up his 
kingdom without a struggle. He called on the Etruscans 
for help, and their army marched on Rome 

, . . IP, Horatius 

and seized the hill on the opposite bank of the at the 
Tiber. The Etruscans were just about to 
march across the wooden bridge, leading to the city, 
when a young noble named Horatius, with two com- 
panions, volunteered to defend the narrow entrance to 
the bridge while the other Romans tore it down behind 



54 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

them. Though many of the enemy tried to overcome 
them, their attempts were in vain. Wounded but 
unflinching, the three Romans fought until the bridge 
began to tremble, and their friends warned them to 
return while there was still a way. At the call, Horatius's 
companions darted back across the bridge; but their 
leader Ungered, fighting to the last. Then, just as he 
had turned to cross, the bridge fell with a mighty crash ; 
and he was left, cut off among his enemies. 

The [Etruscans called upon Horatius to yield; but 
instead he plunged, with all his armor on, into the 
yellow torrents of the Tiber. Many times he seemed 
sinking in midstream, but each time he rose again. 
At last, swimming manfully, he reached the other shore 
shore in safety. Rome was saved; and though the 
war continued for some time, the city was never 
again in such danger of falling under the rule of the 
wicked King. 

The victory over the King, however, did not bring 

peace to Rome; for there were troubles within the city 

itself, and warlike neighbors on every side 

between the without. Romc had uow somc thousands of 



men who could fight in her armies if they 
were needed. But the greater number of these men 
were not allowed to take part in the government, or to 
share in the public land gained through war. This was 
because they were new-comers to Rome, and were not 
descended from the old famiUes which had settled the 
first three hills. They were called plebeians, while the 
descendants of the old families were called patricians. 

The plebeians were not satisfied to go on fighting for 
Rome, and yet receive none of the benefits of their 
success in war. At length they left the city in a body 
and encamped on a hill not far away, where they threat- 



EARLY DAYS OF ROME 55 

ened to found a new city This threat made the 
patricians grant them more privileges, and they returned 
to Rome. But the struggle went on for two ^, 

111 Ml 111. Theplebe- 

hundred years, until at last the plebeians ians gain 

1 P 11 • 1 1 ,. . . full rights 

gained luU rights, and no distinction was 
thenceforth made between them and the patricians. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find cities in the United States in the same latitude as 

Kome. Explain the differences in climate. 

2. What were the advantages of Eome's location? 

3. Compare the peninsulas of Italy and Greece. Which has 

more natural advantages? 

4. Eead other stories of the early kings. (See Harding's Ct^y of 

the Seven Hills.) 

5. Let some pupil recite the verses about Horatius given on 

pages 37-38 of The City of the Seven Hills. 



XI 
THE STORY OF CINCINNATUS 

Points to be Noted 

Eome's wars with her neighbors; her army entrapped by the 

Aequians. 
Powers of a Eoman dictator; Cincinnatus appointed to rescue 

the army. 
His orders; the march; the army rescued; how the Aequians 

surrendered. 
Cincinnatus lays down his arms; the American Society of the 
Cincinnati, and the city named after it. 

While the struggle between the patricians and the 
plebeians was going on, Rome was constantly troubled 
Rome's by attacks from her neighbors. When the 

wars with ^^y ^^g '^^ j,^^j danger, the patricians and 
neig ors plebeians would cease their quarrels for a 
time, and would march out together to defend their 
lands. It was during one of these many struggles that 
a Roman called Cincinnatus made his name famous, 
because of his ability and his virtues. 

It happened that a band of Aequians, a sturdy people 

who lived on the slopes of the mountains east of Rome, 

marched into the Roman lands, and began 

Attack ^ 

of the to burn and to plunder. A Roman consul 

Aequians . 

led an army against them, but the Aequians 
soon discovered that he did not wish to fight. They 
then laid siege to his camp, by throwing up earthworks 
around it, and so they held his army as if it were in a trap. 
However, some of the Romans succeeded in passing 
through the Unes of the enemy, and hastened to the city 
with the news that the army was surrounded. 

56 



THE STORY OF CINCINNATUS 



57 



When the Romans heard this, the Senate was hur- 
riedly called together, and decided that a dictator must 
be appointed. A dictator was a man elected cincin- 
in time of great danger to take the place of appofnted 
the two consuls, who so often disagreed that ^^^^^^^^ 
their quarrels weakened the army. He had all the 
powers of a King, and as long as the danger lasted, the 
people obeyed the dictator's commands without question. 
Lucius Quintius, who was called " Cincinnatus, " on 




ROMAN PLOW 



account of his crisp, curly hair, was the one whom they 
chose to meet their present difficulty. 

Although Cincinnatus was a patrician, he was a poor 
man and tilled his own little farm of four acres on the 
other side of the River Tiber. When the messengers 
came to announce to him that he had been appointed 
dictator, they found him plowing in the fields, without 
his "toga" or outer gown. They bade him leave his 
work and put on his toga, that he might listen with due 
respect to the commands of the Senate. This he did, 
wondering what could be the message. 



58 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Then the messengers saluted him as dictator, and 

bade him come to Rome and take command. Cincin- 

natus obeyed, and went with them into the 

He rescues i i i n i ^ 

the Roman City. He Commanded that all who were oi 
the age to act as soldiers should come together 
before sunset, each bringing twelve large wooden stakes, 
besides his arms, and food for five days. When the 
appointed time came, the men set out, with Cincinnatus 

marching before them and 
bidding them hasten. At 
midnight they reached the 
camp where the Aequians 
were laying siege to the 
Romans. Cincinnatus first 
went all about the place, in 
order to discover, as well as 
he could in the darkness, 
how it was arranged. Then 
he drew his men silently 
around the camp, directing 
that at a given signal they 
should all raise a shout, and 
begin digging a trench and 
driving their stakes before it 
for defense. 

When all was ready, the 
signal was given; and their mighty shout terrified the 
Aequians and carried joy to the hearts of the imprisoned 
Romans. These seized their arms and rushed upon 
the Aequians, just as the latter were turning to attack 
the soldiers of Cincinnatus. Before daylight the Romans 
had conquered, for the Aequians were attacked from 
both sides at once, and were fighting unknown numbers 
in the darkness of the night. 




A ROMAN SOLDIER 



THE STORY OF CINCINATUS 



59 



After the battle was over, the enemies of the Romans 
were not destroyed, for Cincinnatus said: "I want not 
the blood of the Aequians. Let them depart The Aequi- 
in peace. But, before they go, we must have under^he 
a confession that their nation is defeated and ^^^^ 
subdued. They must all pass under the yoke." He 
ordered two spears to be driven 
into the earth, and a third one 
fastened across their tops. Under 
this the Aequians were obliged to 
pass, without their arms, and with 
but one garment on their backs. 
This was done to show that they 
were now as peaceful and subdued 
as the patient oxen that plowed 
the Roman fields with the yoke 
upon their necks. 

Cincinnatus was not made vain 
either by his great victory or by 
the honor that was cincin- 
shown him afterwards. iLys"^down 
On the sixteenth day »^i« p^^^*" 
after he had received the com- 
mand, he laid down his power 
and returned to his little farm 
and his plowing. For giving up 
his power so easily when his work was done, he has 
been as much admired as for his success as a general. 

At the close of our Revolutionary War, General 
Washington and his companions did the same thing 
that Cincinnatus was praised for doing so many cen- 
turies before. They too gave up their places as generals 
and officers in the army, and went peacefully back to 
their farms and shops. They thought of Cincinnatus 




ROMAN STANDARD 
BEARER 



60 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

at the time, and they joined together to form a society 
which they called "the Cincinnati," after this old 
Roman. This society, in its turn, gave its name to the 
city of Cincinnati, in the state of Ohio. From this you 
can see how long a man's name may last in the world, 
if he is strong and noble enough to do something which 
people will be glad to remember. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Why was it necessary to have a dictator in times of danger? 

2. Cincinnatus was regarded as a model Koman. What were 

his good qualities? Why was he admired for laying 
down his command? 

3. A Eoman army was once obliged itself to pass under the 

yoke. Eead an account of its surrender, at the Caudine 
Forks. 



XII 
THE GAULS IN ROME 

Points to be Noted 

Where the Gauls came from; their home in Italy; their appear- 
ance and manner of fighting. 

The battle on the Allia; preparations for a siege; what persons 
remained in Kome. 

Slaughter of the old men; burning of the city; siege of the 
Capitol. 

The attempt to surprise the Capitol; why it failed; ransom 
paid to the Gauls. 

In their wars with the peoples about them the Romans 
were usually victorious; but the time came when they 
were met by an enemy more terrible than any of their 
neighbors, and at whose hands they suffered a severe 
defeat. 

In the valley of the Po, in the north of Italy, had 
settled a people whom the Romans called Gauls. They 
had come across the Alps into Italy from the The 
colder countries farther north, and they were ^^"*^ 
very different in appearance and manner of fighting 
from any people that the Romans had ever met. They 
were taller than the Italians, and had fair hair and skin 
and blue eyes, in contrast to the black hair and eyes 
and dark skins of the southern peoples. They rushed 
into battle in great masses, shouting savage cries and 
blowing shrilly upon war-horns. The noise and din 
terrified the enemy as much as the fierce blows of their 
heavy swords. 



m 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Battle 
on the 
AUia 



About sixty years after Cincinnatus's victory, the 

Gauls marched upon Rome. The Romans went out 

to meet them with a large army; and a battle 

took place on the banks of a little stream 

called the Allia, which flows into the River 

Tiber. The Romans drew up 

their men in a long Une, as 

they were in the habit of 

doing when they met their 

ItaUan enemies; but the Gauls 

came charging in a great mass, 

and went through the Roman 

line with a rush that could 

not be resisted. The Roman 

army was split into two parts; 

and, terrified at the savage 

attack and their sudden 

defeat, they fled blindly, as 

they had so often caused their 

own enemies to flee. The 

greater part of the Roman 

army was cut off from Rome 

by the force of the Gauls, and 

only a handful succeeded in 

reaching the city. 

While the Gauls tarried to 

strip the arms from the 

Roman dead, and 

Romans „ . , , 

prepare for to least in cclebra- 

^'*^^^ tion of their victory, the people at Rome 

hastened to lay in provisions and prepare for a siege. 
There were too few soldiers left in the city to attempt to 
guard the wall; so the Romans determined to take their 
stand on the Capitol, a rocky hill upon which the citadel 




GALLIC SOLDIER 

Notice the trousers and 
moustache 



THE GAULS IN ROME^^ 6^ 

was built. If r sides wer#si6i^ steep, except where the road 
ascended, that it seemed as if no enemy could climb 
them. Upon it was a well, to furnish a sure supply of 
water; and there, too, were the temples of the gods, to 
protfectand encourage the citizens in the defense of their 
stromghold. 

Not all of the people, however, could find refuge there. 
No one was wanted on the Capitol who could not do his 
part in its defense. The women and children, and the 
people untrained to arms, would only have taken the 
food from the mouths of those who labored to save the 
most sacred part of the town. So, while the Capitol 
was being made ready, great numbers of the people 
went out of Rome, and sought refuge in the hills on the 
other side of the Tiber, and in neighboring cities. 

There were some of the Romans, however, who could 
not fight and yet who would not leave the city. These 
were the old patricians, who were too feeble to 
bear arms, but who could not endure the men^in the 
thought of wandering in exile while the city **^""* 
they loved was laid in ashes by the barbarous Gauls. 
They determined to make a sacrifice of themselves to 
the gods, for the good of their country. They were 
men who in their earlier years had been consuls, or had 
filled other high offices in the city. Now they put on 
their robes of state; and seating themselves in their 
ivory chairs in the Forum, where public meetings were 
held, they awaited calmly the coming of the enemy. 

When at last the Gauls entered the city, they passed 
wonderingly from street to street through the empty 
town, seeking the enemy who awaited them only in the 
citadel above. When they came to the Forum, they 
were struck with amazement at the sight of so many 
stately old men, sitting in dignified silence. The old 



64 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




THE GAULS IN ROME 65 

nobles neither rose at their coming, nor so much as turned 
their eyes toward them; but gazed upon one another 
quietly, and showed no sign of fear. 

For a time, the Gauls stood wondering at the strange 
sight, and did not approach or touch the Romans, for 
they seemed more like an assembly of gods than men. 
Finally a barbarian, bolder than the rest, drew near to 
one of the old men, and gently stroked his long, white 
beard. Perhaps he intended no harm; but the old 
Roman took it for an insult, and, raising the long staff 
which he carried, he struck the Gaul a heavy blow. 
The anger of the Gauls then flamed up, and the old men 
were put to death, as they had expected to be. The 
houses of the city were robbed of their goods and set on 
fire, and soon the streets and buildings were nothing but 
a mass of smoldering ruins. 

Even then, the Gauls could not take the Capitol. 
That great rock was steep and well defended, and they 
found that they could not force their way to siege of 
its top. They were obliged to settle down theCapitoi 
in the ruined city and besiege the Romans — that is, 
try to starve them into surrender. One night, during 
this siege, a messenger from the Romans outside the 
city managed to steal through the camp of the Gauls 
and scramble safely up the rocky side of the Capitol. 
Before morning he returned as he had come; but next day 
the Gauls found the marks of hands and feet where he 
had climbed. Then they said to one another: 

"Where it is easy for one man to get up, it will not 
be hard for many, one after another. " 

So, the next night, they made the attempt. Sending 
an unarmed man ahead to try the way, they followed 
in his steps, passing their weapons from one to another, 
and drawing each other up over the steep places. In 



66 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

this way they reached the top unnoticed by the Romans, 
for the sentinels and even the dogs were fast asleep. 

But the sacred geese that were kept near the 
geese save temple of the Romau goddess Juno were more 

watchful. As the enemy approached their 
inclosure, they beat their wings, and cackled loudly. 
This roused an officer named Marcus Manlius, who 




VIEW OF THE CAPITOL (Restoration) 

was sleeping near by. Snatching up his arms and 
shouting to his comrades, he rushed to the spot where 
the first Gauls were climbing over the wall of the citadel. 
One of them he slew with his sword, and another, at 
the same time, he struck full in the face with his shield, 
hurling him headlong down the rock. Manlius's com- 
panions now joined him; and spears and stones fell 
thick and fast upon the climbing enemy, until the 
last of the attacking party was dashed to ruin at the 
foot of the rock, and the citadel was saved. 



THE GAULS IN ROME 67 

After this, the siege continued for many months, 
until at last the Gauls agreed to leave Rome in return 
for a thousand pounds of gold. When the The Gauis 
gold was weighed out, the Romans com- ^^^^^ 
plained that the Gauls used unfair weights. Thereupon 
the leader of the Gauls threw his heavy sword into 
the scales, crying "Woe to the conquered!" The 
Romans were forced to add gold enough to balance even 
this additional weight. At this heavy price they were 
at last rid of their terrible enemies. 

When the Gauls were gone, the people who had fled 
returned to the ruined city, and began the work of 
rebuilding their homes. The sufferings ^. „ 

, The Roman 

which they had endured together seem to conquest of 
have made the feeling between the patricians 
and the plebeians less bitter. Soon all differences 
between them disappeared, and with union and harmony 
among her citizens, Rome grew rapidly in power. Within 
one hundred and twenty-five years from the time of the 
destruction of the city by the Gauls, the Romans, step 
by step, had conquered the entire peninsula of Italy, 
up to the valley of the Po River. Then, in 264 B.C., 
they began their first conquest of lands beyond the sea. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. "What is the difference between a siege and a battle? 

B. "Why were the Gauls unable to take the Capitol by siege? 



XIII 
ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 

Points to be Noted 

Location of Carthage; its sea-power; its rivalry with Rome. 

Genius of the Barca family; Hannibal's oath; Hamilcar and 
Hannibal in Spain. 

Hannibal's plans; his march through Gaul; how he crossed the 
River Rhone; difficulties in crossing the Alps. 

Hannibal's success in Italy; battle of Cannae; the terror of 
the Romans; courage of the Senate; how the Roman gen- 
erals fought Hannibal. 

Cause of Hannibal's failure in Italy; his recall to Africa; 
defeat of Carthage at Zama; terms of peace; Hannibal's 
death. 

Revival of Carthage; its final destruction. 

Just across the Mediterranean Sea from Italy, on 
the coast of Africa, was the city of Carthage. At this 
Carthage time it was larger and richer than Rome, and 
Ca?tha^ its people ruled a great part of the coasts of 

gimans Africa, Spain, and Sicily. The Carthaginians 

were the leading traders and sailors of their day; and 
they regarded the sea, on which their many vessels 
came and went, as belonging to themselves alone. They 
are said to have boasted once that, without their per- 
mission, the Romans could not even wash their hands 
in its waters. 

Now that Rome ruled the peninsula of Italy, she was 
a close rival of Carthage for power in the West. It was 
The wars almost Certain, therefore, that sooner or 
**®^*" later each city would try to make herself 

supreme over the other. The struggle, which was 
the longest and hardest that Rome ever experienced, 



ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 



69 



began in Sicily in 264 b.c, and continued through 
three great wars. 

In the first war, Rome conquered the island of Sicily. 
In this and in the next war, the Romans were fighting 
not only against the might of the powerful „ .. 

p /-. 1 • . n Hamilcar 

City oi Carthage, but against the genius of a and his son 

1 rr.1 1 Hannibal 

family of great generals. The head of this 



His son, Hannibal, 



family was named Hamilcar Barca. 

was one of the 

greatest generals 

that has ever 

lived; and the 

part which he 

played in the 

second war was 

so important 

that it is often 

called the war 

with Hannibal. 

After the loss 
of Sicily, Ham- 
ilcar set out to 
conquer Spain 
for Carthage. 
But before leav- 
ing that city he 

led Hannibal, who was then only a boy, before the altar 
of one of the Carthaginian gods, and said: '^Lay your 
hand upon the sacrifice, my son, and swear that you 
will never be friends with Rome so long as you shall live." 

Hannibal did as he was bidden, and went away to 
Spain with the thought deep in his breast that he was 
now the enemy of Rome forever. He grew up in his 
father's camp, and was his companion while he con- 




HANNIBAL 



70 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

quered the rich peninsula of Spain for Carthage. Before 
his father died, Hannibal had learned all that Hamilcar 
could teach him of warfare and of government. 

After his father's death, Hannibal became com- 
mander of the Carthaginian army in his place. His 
Hannibal Hicn wcrc SO filled with love and admiration 
geneiSr for their general, that they were ready to 
m pain foUow him auywhcrc, and do anything that 
he commanded. He immediately began preparations 
to carry out his long-cherished plan for an attack upon 
Rome. He determined that this war should be fought 
on Roman, and not on Carthaginian, ground; in Italy, 
and not in Africa. He had the choice of two ways of 
reaching Italy from Spain. He might cross the sea in 
Carthaginian ships, or he might go by land, through 
Spain and Gaul. He decided to go by land; but we may 
be sure of one thing, — that he did not know quite how 
difficult a path it was that he had chosen. He was the 
greatest man of his time, but he had no way of learning 
the simple facts about the world he lived in, which you 
are taught in every day's geography lesson. 

It was in April that Hannibal started on his long 

march. Besides the many thousand men who made 

up his army, he took with him thirty-seven 

*^to Gaul elephants, to use in battle, and many horses 

(218 B.C.) 

and mules to carry the baggage. As soon as 
he got out of the territory that Carthage had conquered, 
his troubles began. He had to fight his way against 
unfriendly natives in northern Spain. When he came 
to the swiftly flowing Rhone River, the Gauls tried to 
prevent his crossing. However, the army safely crossed 
in canoes and boats, which they collected along the 
river; but great rafts had to be prepared to ferry the 
elephants over. 



ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 71 

After crossing the Rhone, the way was ^asy until 
they came to the foot of the Alps. There the greatest 
difficulties of the march began. The way passage 
now lay along steep, narrow paths, up which ****^**®^*p* 
the horses and elephants could scarcely climb. Often 
a single misstep would have sent them rolling and 
tumbling a thousand feet down the mountainside, 
to be dashed to pieces on the rocks below. Then, too, 
the people who inhabited the mountains were unfriendly. 
They stationed themselves on either side of the path 
up which the army toiled, and hurled stones and weapons 
upon them from the heights above. These threw the 
long line of baggage animals into great disorder, and the 
wounded and frightened horses galloped to and fro, and 
either fell themselves or crowded others over the cliffs 
and down the mountainside. Again and again Hanni- 
bal was obliged to take some of his men, and clamber up 
the cliffs to drive off these enemies. 

On the ninth day after they had begun their ascent, 
the army reached the summit of the pass. After that, 
they were no longer troubled by attacks from the moun- 
tain tribes. Here Hannibal remained for two days, in 
order to rest his men and beasts. While they tarried 
there, many of the horses which had taken fright and 
run away came straggling into camp. 

After resting sufficiently, they began the descent into 
Italy. New difficulties now presented themselves. The 
way was downhill, to be sure, but the slope was more 
abrupt than on the other side of the mountains. It 
was late in the autumn; and, since the cold comes early 
in these high regions, the paths were already covered 
with a thin coating of new-fallen snow, which caused 
men and beasts to slip, making the descent more dan- 
gerous than the ascent had been. At one place they 



72 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

found that a landslide had completely blocked the path, 
and it took four anxious days of hard labor to cut out a 
new road for the horses and elephants in the side of the 
rocky cliff. 

Through all their trials and dangers, Hannibal cheered 
and encouraged his army. When they reached a height 
from which the rich plain of the River Po could be seen 
in the distance, he cried out: 

"There is Italy! There are friends waiting to wel- 
come you and aid you against the tyrant Rome! You 
have now climbed not only the walls of Italy, but of 
Rome itself. After one, or at most two, battles, all 
these fertile fields will be yours. " 

Then the soldiers pushed on with new courage. On 
the fifteenth day after they had entered the Alps, they 
descended into Italy. But the army was greatly 
weakened by the hardships of the way and the fights 
with the natives. More than half of the men and 
horses, and many of the elephants, had been lost; and 
the soldiers who remained were so worn by their suffer- 
ings that they looked more like shadows than men. 
However, after resting a few days, all were ready once 
more to follow their dauntless commander wherever 
he chose to lead them. 

The Romans were surprised and dismayed when news 
came that the Carthaginian army was already in Italy. 
Hannibal They hurriedly gathered together their forces, 
m Italy ^^^ ^^^^ them on to meet the enemy. Any 

one but Hannibal they might have stopped, but him 
they could not check. He defeated them in battle 
after battle, and swept on in a torrent that could not 
be resisted. In one battle, at Cannae, the Romans 
lost nearly 70,000 men, including eighty senators; and 
the Carthaginians gathered from the dead on the field 



ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 73 

enough gold rings to fill a bushel measure. After that, 
the name of Hannibal became a word of fear to old and 
young alike; and nearly two hundred years from this 
time the memory of that terror still lingered. A Roman 
poet then wrote of him, calling him ''the dread Han- 
nibal, " and saying that his march through Italy was like 
the sweep of the eastern gales that had wrecked so many 
Roman fleets in the waters of Sicily, or Hke the rush 
of flames through a blazing forest of pines. 

The Romans were long in learning how to defeat 
Hannibal. He was greater than they, and as long as 
he remained in Italy the city of Rome trembled. But 
the Senate remained strong in the midst of the public 
terror. Their generals, too, though they could not 
overcome Hannibal in battle, learned to be cautious. 
They would no longer lead their armies out to fight, 
but hung about watching his camp, in order to capture 
any of the Carthaginians who might become separated 
from the main body while gathering food for themselves 
or for their horses. They sought to defeat Hannibal 
by cutting off his supplies, and so make it necessary for 
him to leave Italy. 

In the end Rome succeeded, as she always did. "The 
Romans," said an old writer who described this war, 
"are never so dangerous as when they seem just about 
to be conquered. " Hannibal found that he was fighting 
a people who could replace a defeated army with another 
which was just as ready as the first to fight to the death. 
Most of the peoples of Italy, too, remained faithful to 
Rome in this time of trial; and Hannibal was disap- 
pointed in getting the help from them upon which he 
had counted. At last, he was forced to look to Africa 
and to Spain for new men and for supplies for his army. 
But when his brother came over the Alps, bringing help 



74 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

from Spain, he was defeated and slain by the Romans 
before Hannibal knew that he had arrived in Italy. 
Besides all this, the Senate found men and ships enough 
to carry the war over into Spain and Africa; and, by 
and by, the Carthaginians were forced to order Hannibal 
back from Italy to defend Carthage itself against 
Roman attacks. 

After fifteen years of victories, which had brought 

the war no nearer to a close, Hannibal was at last 

obliged to leave Italy. The general in com- 

Hannibal i <. i t^ • a p • 

returns to maud of the Roman army in Airica was 
Scipio "Africanus, " as he came to be called 
from his deeds there. He was an able general, and had 
just brought the war in Spain to an end, where, as he 
reported to the Senate, he "had fought with four generals 
and four victorious armies, and had not left a single 
Carthaginian soldier in the peninsula." Now he was 
to do something greater still, something that no Roman 
had ever yet done, — that is, defeat Hannibal in open 
battle. 

This battle took place near a little town named Zama, 
about two hundred miles inland from Carthage. Scipio 
had more troops than Hannibal, but Hannibal 
Zama had about eighty elephants, and he hoped to 

win the battle with these. The Romans, 
however, were now used to fighting against elephants. 
They opened great lanes in their ranks, and let them 
pass harmlessly through, while the soldiers hurled spears 
and other weapons at them, to drive them along or turn 
them back. Then the Roman foot-soldiers charged the 
Carthaginians, shouting their war-cry and clashing their 
swords against their shields. After a hard fight the 
soldiers of Hannibal were overcome. Their general 
alone, with a few of his horsemen, succeeded in escaping. 



ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 75 

The Carthaginians were now forced to make peace, 
by giving up all of their possessions outside of Africa. 
The Romans still so feared Hannibal that, Death of 
before many years had passed, he was com- "^""^^^ai 
pelled to flee from Carthage to escape being put to death 
by their orders. Even then, Roman messengers pursued 
him from kingdom to kingdom, on the eastern shores 
of the Mediterranean, till at last he took his own life to 
avoid falling into the hands of these unforgiving enemies. 
In the years of peace which followed this war, Carthage 
regained something of her former prosperity. Then the 
jealous Romans, fearing that the Cartha- 
ginians might again become dangerous, began des'troyed 
the third war. In this they laid siege to Car- '^'^ 

thage itself, and in 146 b.c. utterly destroyed it. Even 
the ground upon which the city had stood was plowed 
over and sowed with salt, so that it might never more 
be used by men, or even covered by vegetation. 

So ended the wars with the Carthaginians. Rome 
had destroyed her greatest rival, and the way was now 
open for her to seize the western part of the Mediter- 
ranean world. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. What good qualities do the Romans show in the wars with 

Carthage? What bad ones? 

2. Trace on the map Hannibal's route into Italy (see p. 92). 

3. Find out how Hannibal used his elephants in battle. 

4. Why had Hannibal counted on getting help against Rome 

from the peoples of Italy? W^hy did they remain loyal 
to Rome? 

5. Did the Romans do right in destroying the city of Carthage? 



XIV 

ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN 
WORLD 

Points to be Noted 

Eoman territory in 133 B.C.; why Eoman rule had spread. 
Eoman aqueducts; construction of Roman roads. 
Wealth obtained through conquest; a triumphal procession. 
Effects of the conquests on the Eoman generals; on the com- 
mon soldiers; on the Eoman government. 

Spain, Africa, Sicily, and the other islands of the 
Mediterranean, came into the hands of Rome as a result 
The of the Carthaginian Wars. In the eastern 

^n**becomTs Mediterranean, also, Macedonia, Greece, and 
Roman ^^^^^ Minor soon passed under Roman rule. 

This rapid spread of Roman power was partly due, of 
course, to the superiority of the Roman armies. It was 
also due, in large part, to the fact that the Romans 
were then the only people that knew how to rule well, to 
put down pirates and robbers, and to make the world 
safe for men to live in. The result was that, before sixty 
years had passed from the close of the second war with 
Carthage, Rome had obtained control of practically all 
the lands that border upon the Mediterranean Sea, in the 
East as well as in the West. 

In whatever region the Romans went, they made 
aqueducts, built bridges, and erected pubUc buildings, 
as they had long been doing in Italy itself, 
improve- You cau get a good idea of what the Roman 
'"^"^^ temples and public buildings were like from 

the pictures of the Forum and of the Capitol at Rome, 
on pages 64 and 66. The Roman aqueducts were 



THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 



77 



great stone troughs— sometimes built high in the air, on 
arches — in which water was brought to cities from the 
pure sources in the hills, many miles away. 

Most useful of all, perhaps, were the good roads which 
the Romans built to all the lands that came under their 
rule. The original purpose of these was to Roman 
enable Rome to send her armies swiftly to "''^'^^ 
the points where they were needed. But they also 




RUINS OF A ROMAN AQUEDUCT 

The water flowed in a trough on top of the arches 

served, for more than a thousand years, the purposes 
of peaceful trade. The roads were constructed by 
placing a layer of large flat stones on the ground; then a 
thick layer of smaller stones, cemented together with 
lime; then a thinner layer of still smaller stones. On 
top of all, blocks of very hard stone were laid, and fitted 
closely together, so as to make a perfectly smooth surface 
whether for walking or driving. Is it any wonder that 
roads built with such care have lasted to the present day.^ 



78 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Along these roads the Romans placed milestones, 
in order that travelers might know at any point just what 
their distance was from Rome. Where the towns were 
far apart, stations were built by the way, at which they 
might rest and hire fresh horses to carry them on their 
journey. Traveling by land now became much easier 
than it had ever been before, and distant countries 
seemed to be drawn closer together, just as they have 
been in our own day by the construction of railroads 
and telegraphs. 




A ROMAN ROAD ACROSS A MARSH 

The conquest of these many lands brought Rome 
great power, and also vast wealth. So much gold and 
silver was placed in the Roman treasury after 
becomes the defeat of the King of Macedonia that 
wealthy ^^y^j. afterward did Rome have need to raise 

a war tax from her own people. A description of the 
triumph with which the conqueror of Macedonia cele- 
brated his return to Rome will give us an idea of the 
rich spoils that Rome won in her victorious wars. 

The celebration of this triumph lasted three days. 
On the first day, two hundred and fifty chariots, filled 



THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 79 

with pictures and statues taken from the Greeks, 
passed along the Sacred Way leading through the Forum 
and up to the Capitol. On the next day were 
shown the rich arms and armor which had phai""" 
been captured— helmets and shields, gleaming *'''**"'"^" 
swords and spears, and so forth. Behind the wagons 
which bore the arms marched several thousand men, 
each bearing a basin full of silver coin, or carrying a 
silver bowl, goblet, or cup captured in the war. The 
third day furnished the finest sight of all. First came 
the trumpeters, sounding warlike notes. Then came 
young men, leading one hundred and twenty fat oxen 
gaily decorated for the sacrifices to the gods. After the 
cattle marched seventy-seven men, each carrying a basin 
filled with gold coin; and with them came others who 
bore the golden goblets and dishes which the Mace- 
donian King had used at his table. The chariot of the 
King came next, with his armor and crown in it; and 
following that, the King's httle children, two boys and 
a girl, with their attendants and teachers. Even among 
those stern conquerors, many hearts were touched at 
the sight of these unfortunate children. At a little 
distance, came the King himself, clothed all in black, 
and walking quite alone so that all the people might 
have a good view of him. Then there appeared the 
victorious Roman general, dressed in a robe of purple and 
gold, and riding in a splendid chariot, with a laurel branch 
m his right hand. Last of all came the soldiers of his 
army, bearing laurel branches and singing songs of vic- 
tory. Every great conquest made by a Roman general 
was followed by a triumph similar to this. 

Rome could not establish her rule over all the Mediter- 
ranean lands without its making a great difference in 
the Romans themselves. Their great men were no 



80 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

longer like Cincinnatus, who left the plow to fight for 

his country and returned to it when the danger was past. 

The Roman generals now became very rich 

Change in , . n , i • . • • 

Roman men, and spent all their tmie m war or m 

public business. As often happens when 
money comes suddenly to those who have not earned it, 
many of their rulers became extravagant, greedy, and 
cruel, and robbed the helpless people whom they governed. 

The common soldiers, too, had changed. Formerly 
each man fought in the army without pay, and in time 
of peace supported himself and his family by means of 
his little farm. Now many men made a business of 
fighting, and served in the army for the money and spoil 
that they got by it. 

The land, too, had gradually passed into the hands of 
the rich men, and a few great farms had taken the place 
of the many small ones. The worst of it was that 
these large farms were not tilled by free laborers, but by 
slaves, who for the most part were captives taken in 
war. The poor freeman not only lost his land, but he 
lost the chance to work for hire also. Thenceforth he 
must either enlist in the army and earn his living as a 
soldier, or remain idle at Rome in the hope that the 
state would provide for him. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a map showing Eoman lands in 133 B.C. 

2. Describe the buildings shown in the pictures on pages 64 

and 66. 

3. How do modern cities get their water supply? 

4. Watch the building of a road or street and compare with 

Roman methods of road-building. 

5. Were the conquests outside of Italy a good or a bad thing 

for Rome? Why? 

6. How is slavery a bad thing for the masters as well as for the 

slaves? 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 

Points to be Noted 

Caesar's military training; his adventure with the pirates- his 
popularity. ' 

The public games; chariot races; wild l^east fights; gladiatorial 
combats. 

Caesar's election to the consulship; ho is made governor of 
Gaul. 

His conquest of Gaul; revolt of Vercingetorix; the revolt put 
down. 

Caesar and the Germans; his two invasions of Britain- later 
conquest of Britain. ' 

Roman rule and civilization introduced into the West. 

For about eighty years after the destruction of 
Carthage, the Romans remained content with the rule 
of the lands which bordered on the Mediter- Roman 
ranean Sea. Then they extended their ?hrNo"rth** 
power to the Enghsh Channel and the North ^^^ 
Sea by conquering Gaul (where France now is), and 
began to plan the conquest of the island of Great Britain. 
The man who was chiefly responsible for both of these 
steps was a great soldier and statesman named JuHus 
Caesar. 

Caesar received his first training in war in one of those 
conflicts which Rome was now constantly waging in the 
East. One day he showed such bravery in 
saving the life of a fellow soldier that the com- of Julius^ 
mander presented him with a crown of oak ^^^^""^ 
leaves, which was a mark of the highest honor. Several 
years later he decided that he wished to be an orator 
as well as a soldier, so he went to Greece, as many 
Romans did, to study the art of public speaking. 



81 



82 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



While on his way there, he had an adventure which 
shows his character. He was captured by pirates, and 
His kept at their island home until his servants 

wUhVh"''^ could return with the large sum of money 

pirates ^j^-^j^ ^^^ 

demanded as ransom. 

Though his captors 

were desperate men, 

Caesar showed no 

fear of them. He 

threatened that, as 

soon as he was free, 

he would punish them 

for their crimes. 

They laughed at this, 

for they liked his 

fearless spirit. But 

when Caesar was set 

free, the first thing 

that he did was to 

carry out his threat. 

He brought the rob- 
bers to justice, and 

even recovered his 

ransom money. 

Caesar had already 

determined to accom- 
plish some- 
thing great, 




BUST OF JULIUS CAESAR 



How he 
sought 
popular _ _ 

*^''°'" and he never lost sight of this purpose. He 

soon became one of the best orators of Rome. He was 
friendly and pleasant to everyone, and gave money freely 
to all who begged his help. He became very popular, 
and was elected to several ofiices, one after the other. 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 83 

While Caesar held one of these offices, it was his duty 
to oversee the public games. The Romans had now 
become very fond of such shows, and thev 

The 

were given a number of times each year. The public 
games that the Romans liked best were three, ^^""^^ 
— the chariot races, the fights with wild beasts, and the 
contests of gladiators. 

Generally in the chariot races each chariot was drawn 
by four horses, and four chariots took part. The 
drivers of the chariots wore different colors, — white, 
red, blue, and green; and the people took such interest 
in these races, that they divided into parties over them 
as people now do at football games. 

Wild beast fights were introduced into Rome after 
the second war with Carthage. Then the Romans 
began to turn elephants, lions, leopards, and other 
beasts, into the "arena" of the Great Circus, and set 
men to hunt them for the amusement of the spectators. 
It is said that four hundred lions were once fought and 
killed at one time, to make sport for the people. 

But the shows which delighted the Romans most 
were the gladiatorial fights. Gladiators were usually 
captives who had been taken in war, or slaves who 
had been trained to fight to amuse the people. Usually 
they fought in pairs. Sometimes both were armed in 
the same way, with helmet, shield, and sword. Some- 
times one gladiator would be armed thus and the other 
would have a three-pronged spear, and a net to throw 
over his opponent's head and entangle him. When one 
of the gladiators became disabled, the fight stopped 
until the will of the people had been made known. If 
they held their thumbs up, he was spared; but if they 
turned them downwards, the conquered one was put 
to death. 



84 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



85 



The government was supposed to furnish the money 
to provide for these shows, but it had become the custom 
for the overseers of the games to add to them 

• TT71 r^ Caesar's 

at their own expense. When Caesar was costly 
made overseer he tried to give finer spectacles 
than had ever been seen before, regardless of the cost. 
In this way he won the favor of the people; and the 
result was that when he became a candidate for the 
consulship, some time afterward, they gladly elected him. 

When Caesar's year 
as consul was up, he 
was made , 

He conquers 

governor Gaui 
oi the val- 
ley of the Po and of 
the region about the 
River Rhone in Gaul. 
This part of Gaul had 
been under Roman 
rule for some time, 
but the rest of that 
country was still 
under the rule of its 
native chiefs. Caesar resolved to bring the whole 
country under Roman rule ; and the lack of union among 
the Gallic tribes enabled him, in the nine years of his 
governorship, to accomplish this object. 

In the seventh year of his governorship, he saw a 
large part of his work swept away by a dangerous revolt 
of the Gauls. The leader of this revolt 
was a young and warlike chief named Ver- vercin- 
cingetorix, who was as skillful in organizing 
his people as he was bold in battle. Taking advantage 
of Caesar's absence in the valley of the Po, Vercingetorix 




GLADIATORS FIGHTING 



86 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

sent around messengers to all the tribes of Gaul, asking 
them to join him in one last effort to throw off the Roman 
rule. Most of the Gauls joined him gladly; and under 
his leadership they made war upon the Roman garrisons 
and upon the tribes which remained faithful to Rome. 

As soon as he heard of this revolt, Caesar hastened 
back across the Alps into Gaul; and although it was then 
winter, and the rivers were frozen and snow lay thick 
upon the mountains, he at once advanced to attack the 
enemy. Caesar's energy and rapidity of movement 
defeated the first plan of Vercingetorix, so he formed a 
new one. This was to burn the villages and towns and 
lay waste to his own country, so that the Romans 
could not find food for themselves and their horses and 
would be driven to leave the country through lack of 
supplies. In a single day more than twenty towns 
were burned; and all about the Romans there was 
nothing to see but flames. 

Against his own judgment, Vercingetorix consented 
to spare the chief city of this region; and to this Caesar 
laid siege. For twenty-eight days almost constant 
fighting took place between the Gauls who were shut 
up in the town, and Caesar, who was trying to take it. 
Vercingetorix, with his army, had remained outside 
the town, and tried to drive off the Romans. At length, 
in a pouring rain, when the walls were ill-guarded, 
Caesar captured the city, and massacred all the inhabit- 
ants — men, women, and children. 

The war now shifted to another region, where again 
Caesar laid siege to a strongly fortified city. Again 
Vercingetorix tried to hinder his operations. This 
time the Gauls met with better success. For the first 
time in his history, Caesar was defeated in an open 
battle, and soon after was obliged to raise the siege. 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 87 

This so encouraged the Gauls that all except two of 
the tribes which hitherto had sided with the Romans 
now joined in the revolt under Vercingetorix. 

But defeat only spurred Caesar on to greater efforts. 
He gathered together troops from all directions; and 
his soldiers were so devoted to him that they would 
follow him anywhere, and brave any danger to win his 
praise. In one battle, Caesar himself was taken captive 
and was being carried off when his companions rescued 
him. Long afterwards there was to be seen, in one of the 
temples of the Gauls, the sword which was taken from 
Caesar at this time. 

In the end, Vercingetorix was obliged to take refuge 
in the city of Alesia, which stood on a steep ridge and 
was well fortified. Again Caesar set to work 
to besiege it. It proved to be one of the oflhe^ 
most difficult tasks in his whole military life; "''***^ 
and it required all of his genius, and all the courage, 
discipline, and devotion of his soldiers, to bring it to a 
successful conclusion. While Vercingetorix tried to 
break through the lines of earthen fortifications which 
the Romans had constructed about the city, an army of 
more than two hundred thousand Gauls came to his aid, 
and attacked the Romans from the other side. Three 
great battles were fought, each of which was won by the 
Romans. Meanwhile, the Gauls within the city had run 
out of supplies, and starvation stared them in the face. 
Vercingetorix now saw that the struggle was hopeless, 
and he determined to sacrifice himself in order to save 
his followers from massacre. He rode alone surrender 
to the camp of Caesar, laid down his arms f,?i£.t^}^ 
betore his conqueror, and surrendered himself ^****'" 
a prisoner. He was the greatest enemy that the Romans 
had met since the days of Hannibal; and the French 



88 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

people, who are descended from the Gauls, rightly 
regard him as a national hero. But the Romans never 
forgot, and never forgave, the deadly enemies of their 
country. Caesar took Vercingetorix to Rome to adorn 
his triumph there, and then the great Gallic hero was 
put to death in his prison. 

The Roman rule was now established over all Gaul. 
Caesar's moderation and tact soon quieted the restless 
natives. In time they learned the Roman customs and 
the Latin language, and were admitted as Roman 
citizens. So strong was the impression which Rome 
made on this land, in the four centuries that it remained 
under Roman rule, that a great part of the language, 
the law, and the customs of France still show the influ- 
ence of that imperial city. 

But Caesar had other enemies still to face before he 
left Gaul. When he first went to that country, he 
found wandering tribes of Germans there, 
an? the who had crosscd the River Rhine under their 

ermans j^'^^g Ariovistus, in ordcr to find new homes. 
The great size of these Germans, their fierce appearance, 
and their skill in the use of weapons, alarmed many of 
Caesar's soldiers. When it was reported that they were 
about to march to attack these formidable foes, many 
began to murmur. But Caesar knew how to deal with 
faint-hearted followers, as well as with his enemies. 

"If no others will follow me," he said, "I shall go 
forward with the Tenth Legion alone; for I know that 
the men of that company, at least, are too brave ever 
to desert their commander." 

The Tenth Legion were delighted at their general's 
confidence in them, and the others were shamed into 
obedience. Ariovistus was beaten in battle, and he 
and his followers were forced to return into Germany. 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



89 



Later Caesar advanced to the Rhine, and in twelve days 
built a bridge over that broad and rapid stream, on piles 
driven into the river's bed. On this he crossed to the 
opposite shore, in order to teach the Germans to leave 
Gaul alone. After eighteen days of victories, he 
recrossed the Rhine, and broke down his bridge, in 
order that the Germans might not be tempted to return 
again into his province. 

Another and greater exploit was his crossing over into 
Britain. In order to prevent the natives there from 
aiding their kinsmen in Gaul, Caesar built His two 
ships and twice led an expedition to that Bri?|in"^ ^"^ 
island. On the first invasion, the Britons ^^^"^^ ^^^ 
met the Romans at the shore, and tried to prevent their 
landmg. But a standard bearer, who carried the brazen 
eagle, cried out: 

"Follow me, fellow soldiers, unless you will betray 
the Roman eagle into the hands of the enemy!" 

He leaped from the ship, and the other soldiers fol- 
lowed; and after a fierce conflict the Britons were driven 
back. This time Caesar remained only a few weeks in 
Britain. Next summer he came again, remained longer, 
and made the Britons promise to pay tribute. He did 
not conquer any part of Britain, and the tribute was 
never paid. But he showed the Britons the power of 
Rome, and they did not afterward interfere with his 
work in Gaul. 

When Caesar wrote a history of his wars, a few years 
later, he gave the Romans their first real knowledge of 
Britain. About a hundred years afterwards, 
the Romans began the conquest of the &ter'" 
island. Large armies were sent over, and *^**"**"^'"^** 
the conquest was made, little by little, from the south 
toward the north and west. In about forty years, all 



90 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



that we now know as England was conquered. Then 
the Romans proceeded to civilize Britain also. They 
built great walls to protect the land on the north, and 
four principal roads, leading out from London to all 
parts of the country. Some towns, too, were built, 

and in them the 

,,^^P ''^__. Roman language 

was spoken. But 
in the country 
districts, away 
from the roads, 
the Britons 
retained their 
own language 
and their own 
customs. 

Thus Julius Caesar spread the Roman power into Gaul, 
and paved the way for its extension into Britain. He 
Civilization was the greatest general that the Romans 
into the Gvcr had, and as a statesman also he showed 
^* the highest ability and did many important 

things. But we who live in America may think of him 
chiefly as the man who first brought into the lands 
which were to become France and England, the civiliza- 
tion which the Romans had inherited from the Greeks, 
and which those lands were to hand on to a New France 
and a New England across the sea. 




PART OF THE ROMAN WALL IN BRITAIN 



Topics for Review and Search 

1. Study the picture on page 84, and describe the Great Circus. 

2. What qualities made Caesar a great general? 

3. Why were the Romans able to overcome Vercingetorix? 

4. Was it a good or a bad thing for the world that this revolt 

failed? State your reasons. 



XVI 
ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 

Points to be Noted 

Failure of the government at Rome; the remedy 
Caesar becomes master of Rome; his murder 

''%^^s'':f\lffrl^:^, '^ ^"^"^^^^^ ''^^^ ^--- peace"; 

What Rome has left us; how Pompeii was preserved. 

The forum and streets of Pompeii; its private dwellings. 

Interior arrangement of a Roman house; its furniture 

The shops of Pompeii; writings on the walls. 

Other sources of knowledge about Roman life 

Education of a Roman boy; Roman books; donning the manly 

Unity of the Roman Empire; its influence in European history. 

While Caesar was absent in Gaul, the misgovernment 
of the rich men of Rome had been steadily growing 
worse. As Roman governors they robbed caesar 
the people of the provinces, and, in their ^^^^^^^ 
conflicts for power at home, armed men fought ^^^^' "^^ 
in the streets and blood was shed at the elections The 
root of the trouble was that the Roman territory had 
become too vast to be ruled by the people of a single 
city. Since the Romans had no idea of our modern 
representative form of government, there seemed to be 
only one remedy. That was for some strong man to 
take the government out of the hands of the people, and 
stop the selfish wrangling of the nobles and their oppres- 
sion of the people. 

Caesar had the ability, and the army, and the wish to 
do this. The opportunity came when his political rivals 



91 



92 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 93 

caused the Senate to demand that he give up his army, 
and return defenseless to face his enemies at home. The 
southern boundary of Caesar's province in Italy was the 
little River Rubicon, and to cross that with his army 
meant disobedience to the Senate and the beginning of 
civil war. Caesar hesitated for some time, but at last 
he "crossed the Rubicon" and advanced to meet his 
enemies. Five years of warfare followed, at the end of 
which Caesar was completely successful. He had not 
only destroyed the armies of his enemies, but he had 
put down rebellions which they had stirred up in the 
subject lands. It was at the close of one of these rebel- 
lions that he sent home his famous message: "I came, 
I saw, I conquered." 

Caesar was now made dictator for life, and gathered 
into his hands all the power at Rome. He wanted to 
go further and change the form of the govern- 
ment from a republic to a monarchy— but a Ca^esaf **^ 
monarchy which rested upon the will of the ^^ ^^^ 
people. He wished to admit the people of the provinces 
to citizenship, and to bring into the Senate the chief men 
of the provinces along with the Roman nobles. Many 
of the men in Rome were not ready for such sweeping 
changes, so they formed a plot to murder Caesar. As 
he entered the Senate house, one day, the plotters 
closed about him. They drew swords and daggers, 
which they had concealed beneath their togas, and fell 
upon him. When Caesar saw his trusted friend Brutus 
striking at him among his foes, he cried out reproach- 
fully, "Thou, too, Brutus!" So saying he ceased his 
struggles, and fell, pierced with many wounds. 

Though the enemies of Caesar were able to put him 
to death, they could not bring back the republic which 
he had overthrown. After he was gone, the quarrels 



94 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

and struggles which he had brought to an end began 
once more. Thirteen years later Caesar's grandnephew, 
Augustus Augustus, whom he had adopted as his son 
the^empire ^ud heir, became like him master of the 
(31 B.C.) whole Roman world. From this time on, 
there was no dispute as to what the form of government 
should be. Augustus became "Emperor" — that is, he 
united in his hands practically all the powers of the 
Roman government; and he established the rule of the 
Empire so firmly that it lasted for nearly five hundred 
years after his death. 

Augustus was a good ruler, and during the years that 

he governed the Empire the world about the Mediter- 

ranean was happier than it had ever been 

Roman before. Peace — '*the Roman peace," as it 

peace ^ 

was proudly called — was spread over the 
civilized world. From Spain to Greece, from Gaul to 
Egypt, there was no longer any war. Travelers came 
and went in safety on the great roads with which the 
Romans had covered the Empire; and farmers sowed 
and reaped their fields in peace, and merchants sent out 
their goods by land and sea, with no cause to fear that 
an enemy might rob them of their gains. 

Augustus decided that the Empire was now as large 
as it ought ever to become. He fixed the Rhine and 
j^.^. Danube rivers as the boundary, on the north, 

of the beyond which the Romans should not seek 

empire 

to rule; and he caused a chain of forts to be 
built along these rivers, to defend the Roman lands 
against the attacks of the Germans and other barbarian 
tribes who dwelt beyond. Nearly all the emperors who 
came after Augustus accepted these limits. Almost 
the only land that was added to the Empire after this 
time was the island of Britain, — and Julius Caesar, as 



ROME CAPITAL OP EMPIRE 95 

we have seen, had already prepared the way for its 
conquest while he was overcoming Gaul. 

We have already learned something of the public 
bu. Idmgs, aqueducts, and roads which the Romans 
built wherever their rule was established; and 
we have seen something of their public games RomS^"'' 
and the triumphal processions with which ""^'"' 
they honored their victorious generals. Let us now try 
to learn what we can of the ordinary life of the 
citizens-their houses, and shops, and schools, and the 
training which the boys received. 

The roads, bridges, and walls which the Romans built 
can now be traced over a great part of Europe; and at 
Rome a few ruined structures still stand, to give us an 
Idea of the grandeur of the ancient city. Moreover, by 
a strange chance, a whole city has been preserved for 
us >« Italy that of Pompeii-very much as it was 
toward the close of the first century after Christ; and from 
this we can gain a very good idea of the life of the people 
ma Roman city eighteen hundred years ago 

Overlooking the bay of Naples, on the coast of Italy 
south of Rome, is Mount Vesuvius. Today it is one 
ot the most active volcanoes of the world- but 
until the first century after Christ, the Romans &«" "' 
supposed that its fires were extinguished and '"^"'""' 
cities were built at its very foot. In the year 79 a.d.. 
the fires of Vesuvius burst forth again, after their long 
quiet, and wrought fearful destruction. When the 
eruption had ceased, it was found that a thick layer of 
ashes and mud was spread over the surrounding country 
to' the' T: "^"\^^' .«*her eruptions came, and added 
to the thickness of this covering. Then the top layer 
was gradually changed to a fine loam, and vegetatfon 
sprang up and covered all that lay beneath 



96 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

For sixteen hundred years the buried towns about 
Mount Vesuvius remained lost to sight. Then a well, 
Ho^ deeper than usual, happened to be dug above 

war^^" one of them, and ancient statues were un- 
uncovered earthed, and bits of sculptured marble. 
Scholars then remembered the story of the buried cities, 
and began the work of uncovering them. 

From that time to this, the work has gone slowly on. 
Several museums are now filled with the pictures, statues, 
and household furniture which have been taken from 
beneath the ashes of Vesuvius. The town which has 
been most thoroughly examined is Pompeii, of which 
over one-half has been laid bare. 

The removal of the earth over Pompeii has shown 
that the city had a forum, surrounded by temples and 
law courts, and other public buildings; and this, as at 
Rome, was the most splendid part of the city. It is 
not for the public buildings, however, that we care 
most; for ancient temples, and other pubUc buildings, 
as well preserved as these, may be found in other places. 
But the glimpse which we get here into the private 
houses of the town, and into the life of the people in the 
streets and shops, we can get nowhere else. It is this 
which makes our interest in Pompeii so great. 

The first thing that strikes the traveler is the narrow- 
ness of the streets. In some of the broadest of these, 
two chariots could scarcely have passed one 
of""^^'^.. another. The pavements are formed of large 
Pompeii ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ joined together with great 

care; and the ruts worn by the passing wheels can still 
be seen in some of them. 

The houses along these cramped streets were built, 
as are the houses in many warm countries today,— about 
one or more inner courtyards, into which most of the 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 



97 



rooms opened. Often the street side was occupied by 
shops which were rented out by the owner, and which 
had no connection with the life of the house itself. 

Upon entering such a dwelling we are likely to find, 
on the floor of the entry, the Latin word for "Welcome" 
formed of bits of stone in mosaic work. Cross- interior 
ing this, we enter the large public reception "^ chouse 
hall. Here the master of the house received the 




INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT POMPEIT (Restoration) 



visitors who came to see him. If they came from a 
distance, they might be lodged over night in the small 
rooms which open off from the hall on either side. The 
walls of the large room are decorated with paintings and 
drawings, and here and there are pedestals where statues 
once stood. The floor, all through the lower story of 
the house, is formed of blocks of marble or other stone, 
and usually these are selected of different colors, and 
are arranged to form a pattern of some sort. 



98 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



In the center of the floor of the main room is a square 
basin, several feet deep, which caught 
the rain from an opening m the 
roof directly above. This opening in 
the roof also served to let out the 
smoke and vapors from the fires, for 
none of the houses had chimneys, and 
the fireplaces were only metal pots 
or pans in which charcoal might be 
burned. 

Leaving the public hall, the visitor 
comes through another passage to the 
private part of the house, where the 
women and children lived, and where 
no guest might enter without a special 
invitation from the master. Here is 
another court, with rows of slender, 
graceful columns about it. Opening 
from this are small, low bedrooms, 
which we should think very uncom- 
fortable; and here, too, is the dining 
room, where the master of the house 
entertained his friends at dinner. 
Above this court, also, there was an 
opening in the roof, with a basin below 
to catch the water; and about the basin 
and among the columns, there perhaps 
grew beds of blooming flowers and 
clumps of evergreens. 

Only the ground floor remains of 
most of the houses of Pompeii; but 
there must have been a second story to 

all of the better houses, and sometimes even a third. 

But the upper part of the house was for the use of the 



LAMP AND STAND 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 



99 



slaves and dependents of the family, and could not have 
been so well arranged, or so beautiful, as the lower floor 
When these houses were first uncovered, many pieces 
of turmture remained in them; but the Roman rooms 
must have been too bare for our ideas of com- r^^^^ 
fort. We should have found only a few ^"''■"i^t"'-^ 
chairs, some small tables, three couches in the dining 
room, some beds or couches in the bedrooms, and here 
and there high stands for their queer oil lamps. The 
lorm of these articles, however, was often most graceful- 
and at times they were made of rich material and with 
great skill of workmanship. Besides such larger pieces 
ot turmture, many 
smaller articles have /\| 
been found, — among L 
them being cooking ves- 
sels, vases, cups and fine 
glasses, combs, hairpins, 
polished metal mirrors, 
and pieces of jewelry. 

The shops of Pompeii 
are as interesting as the private houses. Most of these 
are only small rooms in the front of the houses, and are 
entirely open toward the street. Usually each sho sof 
shop displayed a sign; the milk store, a ^**™p^" 
wooden goat (for it was goat's milk that was sold), and 
the wine shop a large jar. A snake before another 
shop shows that it was a drug store, and a row of 
hams IS the sign of an eating house. A washing and 
dyeing shop has also been found, for the care of 
woolen garments, which were almost the only kind 
worn. Pictures on the walls of this shop show men 
standing in stone tubs and washing the garments by 
stamping on them with their bare feet. 




SPOONS AND DRINKING BOWL 
FROM POMPEII 



100 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Writings 
on the 
walls 



In at least one way the people of Pompeii were very 
much like boys of our own time. They loved to write 
and draw on the walls of the houses of the 
town. Here we find verses from the poets, 
and there letters of the Greek alphabet, 
written by boys too small to reach high up on the walls. 

In many places adver- 
tisements are scratched 
in the plastering, some 
of them announcing 
gladiator fights and per- 
formances in the theater. 
Occasionally we find 
comic pictures such as 
the one in which a gladi- 
ator is seen coming down 
the steps of the amphi- 
theater, with a palm leaf 
of victory in his right 
hand. Such drawings 
and inscriptions are 
often found on the 
ancient buildings of 
Rome also. They must 
have been the work of 
the common people and 
the young boys, for the writers are usually very uncer- 
tain in their grammar and spelling. 

Besides studying the ruins of Pompeii, we have another 
way of learning how the Romans lived. Not all of 
Rome's great men were generals and rulers; many were 
writers, and some, like Caesar, were great in both ways. 
Many of their books have been preserved to the present 
time, and are studied today in our high schools and col- 








DRAWING ON THE OUTER WALL 
OE A HOUSE IN POMPEII 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 101 

leges; and from these books also we can learn much of 
Roman life. 

It is very interesting to compare the education of a 
Roman boy, as it is described in some of these books, 
with that given boys and girls in our own day. 

yj . .| , . Till, . . Education 

LJ ntil ne was six years old, the boy s trammg of a Roman 

was carried on at home. He was told stories 

of the Roman heroes, and of his own ancestors, and 

taught by means of these to be modest, brave, and 

obedient. 

He learned religion at the family altar, where his 
father sacrificed to the Roman gods. Perhaps he learned 
to speak Greek at home, from a Greek slave whom his 
father purchased for that purpose. 

When he began to go to school, it was necessary to 
be up and ready to start before daybreak. A slave 
accompanied him to the school, carrying a a Roman 
lantern to light the way and watching that no s*^**""**-****™ 
harm befell him. The schoolmaster sat on a raised 
platform at one end of the room, with the children on 
stools and benches in front of him. Around the walls 
there were lyres, or harps, to be used in the music 
lessons, and pictures of the gods or of scenes from the 
history of Rome. Above the master's bench there was 
a great stick, and the lazy boys had good reason to 
fear it when they did not know their lessons. 

In this lowest school, the children learned to read 
and to write. Instead of slates or sheets of paper, they 
had wooden tablets covered with wax; and on 
these they wrote with a sharp-pointed instru- children 
ment called a stylus. The other end of the 
stylus was blunt, so that when a pupil made a mistake 
in his writing, he could smooth out the soft wax with 
this end and try again. Here the children also learned 



102 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



arithmetic. Perhaps the arithmetic which you have to 
study is diflScult for you; but think how much harder 
it must have been for the Roman boys. They did not 
have the plain and easy figures which you use, but 
only what we still call the "Roman numerals." If you 




ROMAN BOOKS AND WRITING MATERIALS 

In two of the pictures purses and heaps of coins are also shown 

want to see how much more difficult it is to use these, try 
to find the answer to 

XXIV times LXXXVII, 
and then see how much easier it is when it is written 
24 times 87. 
Because their arithmetic was so hard, each pupil 
carried with him to school a counting-frame to help him. 
This was a wooden frame divided into lines and columns ; 
and he worked his problems with it by putting little 
pebbles in the different columns to represent the different 
denominations. 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 



103 



After the boy had gone through this elementary 
school, if his parents could afford it he entered what 
was called a grammar school. 
There he studied Greek grammar, 
and read some of the famous books of 
that day, both Greek and Latin. Of 
course these were not printed books, 
as printing was not invented till fif- 
teen hundred years after this. These 
which he studied were all written with 
a pen, on smooth white parchment, 
or on paper made from the papyrus 
plant which grows in Egypt. Instead 
of being bound, as our books are, the 

pages of these were 

all pasted into one 

long strip, and then 

rolled tightly 

around a stick. 

All Roman boys of good families 

followed this course of training until 

they were about fifteen 

• Donning 

years old. Then they dis- the manly 
carded the "boyish toga," 
with its narrow purple border, and 
put on for the first time a toga all of 
white, such as the men wore. This 
was made a day of festival for the 
family. The young man went with 
his father and his friends into the 
Forum, where his name was written 
in the list of Roman citizens, and 
then to the temples on the Capitol to offer sacrifices 
to the gods. After this he might be called upon to 





TOGA— FRONT 



TOGA— BACK 



104 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

serve in war, and he had the right to do everything 
that the grown men were allowed to do. 

For many years, throughout the length and breadth 
of the Roman Empire, life went on in the ways which 
^.^ we have been describing. There were some 

Roman slight differences between the various pro- 

vinces, of course, but in the main the law, the 
government, the language, the manner of Hving, and the 
education were the same in all the lands about the 
Mediterranean Sea. Rome thus gave a unity to the 
ancient world which it had never had before, and this 
unity of civilization western Europe has never since lost. 
In this way the influence of the Roman Empire has been 
one of the greatest factors in the history of the world. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Why was it impossible for Eome to remain a republic? 

2. Why do we call Julius Caesar one of the world's greatest 

men"? 

3. Eead the account of the murder of Caesar in Shakespeare's 

play entitled Julius Caesar (Act iii, Scene 7). 

4. Eead the description of the eruption of Vesuvius in Bulwer 

Lytton's Last Days of Pompeii. 

5. What studies do you have in school that Eoman boys did 

not have? 

6. In what ways are Eoman numerals used today? 

7. When is an American boy said to "come of age"? What 

rights does he then gain? 



XVII 
ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 



Pcints to te Noted 

Christianity arose under the Eoman rule; its spread in the 
Empire; attitude of the government; of the people. 

Persecution under the Emperor Nero; the catacombs; Christian 
martyrs; Polycarp; efiect of the persecutions. 

Organization of the Church; priests, bishops, archbishof)s, and 
Pope. 

Why men became hermits; rise of monasteries. 



For a century and a half after the time of Augustus 
the Roman Empire continued to be strong and pros- 
perous; then slowly its strength began to Beginnings 
pass from it. Meanwhile a power of a dif- chJlltian 
ferent sort was arising within its limits. '■®"^***" 
This was the power of the Christian religion, which took 
possession of the minds and hearts of the Romans; then 
of the barbarian Germans, who later conquered them; 
and so spread about the world and overcame it in a 
better way than that of Rome. 

Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus, when 
all the world was at peace under the Roman rule. When 
he was put to death, Judea was a Roman province; 
and Pontius Pilate, who sentenced him, was a Roman 
governor. It was the Apostle Paul chiefly who carried 
the teachings of Jesus, which were first addressed to the 
Jews, to the other nations which dwelt within the Roman 
Empire; and it was because Paul had been born in a 
town in which all men were regarded as Roman citizens, 
that he was enabled to appeal for a special trial at Rome 
when he was arrested in Judea for his teachings. 



106 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

By this time there were little bands of Christians in 
many of the cities about the Mediterranean Sea, and 
How Rome it became an important question how the 

regarded t> , , 

the Koman government would treat the new 

ristians religion. Usually the Romans allowed the 
nations that they conquered to worship whatever gods 
they chose, and even to build their temples in Rome 
itself. But there were several reasons why the Romans 
would not let the Christians worship freely. The 
Jews made many false charges against them, for they 
were unwilling to see the Christians given the same 
toleration which they themselves enjoyed. The most 
serious reason, however, was that the Christians would 
not offer sacrifices to the Roman deities— especially to 
the statues of the Emperors, who were now looked upon 
as gods. The result was that they were charged with 
rebellion, and with plotting to overthrow the govern- 
ment; and whenever war, or famine, or disease, came 
upon the people, they were ready to blame it upon the 
Christians. 

"The gods are angry with us for sheltering those who 
deny them ! " they cried at such times. " The Christians 
must be put to death ! To the lions with the Christians !'* 
Then all persons who were suspected of holding the 
new faith were seized and hurried off to the judges. If 
The ^^^y admitted that they were Christians, they 

pliseclfted ^^^^ promptly sentenced to death. If they 
denied it, they were asked to offer sacrifice to 
the statue of the Emperor. In case they refused, the 
charge was regarded as proved, and they, too, were 
declared guilty. 

In this way the prisons were filled with Christians. 
It made no difference whether they were slave or free, 
old or young, strong men or delicate women,— their fate 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 107 

was the same. When next the people were gathered 
to see the games in the Great Circus, the Christians 
were driven into the arena. Then lions and leopards 
were turned loose upon them, while the cruel Romans 
shouted and cheered from their seats above. 

The first persecution of the Christians at Rome took 
place while Nero was Emperor. A great fire had broken 
out, burning more than two-thirds of the 
city. The Romans blamed this upon their under Nero 
reckless Emperor; and it was reported that 
Nero had been seen on a tower, watching the fire and 
unfeelingly playing upon a harp. The Roman people 
were very angry, and for a time there was danger of 
rebellion. To quiet them, Nero had it reported that it 
was the Christians who had started the fire; and that 
while it was burning many of them had been seen going 
about with torches in their hands, lighting the buildings 
which had not yet caught. 

This turned the people's wrath from their Emperor to 
the Christians. The cry arose on every side, "To the 
lions with the Christians"; and hundreds of them were 
hurried off to prison. Nero invented many new and 
cruel punishments for them. Some were covered with 
the skins of wild beasts, and dogs were set on them. 
Others were wrapped in sheets of pitch, and burned at 
night in the Emperor's gardens. Others, more merci- 
fully, were put to death in their prisons ; and in later days 
it was said that the Apostles Peter and Paul were among 
those who so perished. 

It was not only evil Emperors, like Nero, who perse- 
cuted the Christians. Sometimes the worst treatment 
came by orders of good Emperors, who were ignorant of 
the real teachings of Christ and believed that the charges 
made against the sect were true. These troubles lasted 



108 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 109 

for such a great letigth of time that for generations the 
Christians were forced to worship in secret, and have a 
refuge that should be always ready when danger 
threatened. 

One difference between the Christians and the Romans 
was in the way they disposed of their dead. Instead of 
burning the bodies, in the Roman fashion, the 

. . . . The cata- 

Christians buried them. The early Christians combs at 

11-1 Rome 

dug out great tunnels and caves m the soft 
rock, and formed tombs along the sides of these. In 
the course of years the hills of Rome came to be mined 
through and through with such tunnels, called cata- 
combs. They make a great network of passages, miles 
and miles in length, which cross and recross one another, 
under the city, much as the Roman streets do on the 
surface of the ground. When a persecution began, the 
Christians would hide themselves underground in these 
streets of the dead; and there, at other times, they would 
often gather together in secret to hold their church 
services. 

The Christians who suffered death or grievous injury 
for their faith were called "martyrs." Some of the 
most earnest Christians eagerly sought to christian 
receive a martyr's death, and mourned if *"^^*^y''® 
they were not granted it. Even boys and girls became 
heroes in these persecutions, and endured death without 
flinching, — glad that they were suffering for Christ as 
Christ had suffered for them. 

One of the noblest martyrs of this time was a man 
named Polycarp, who was put to death in Asia Minor. 
He was then ninety years old; and all the Christians of 
the East looked up to him with love and admiration 
because he had been a disciple of the Apostle John. 

When the soldiers came to arrest him, their commander 



110 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

took pity on him, and tried to persuade him to sacrifice 
to the Roman gods, and so save his life. The Roman 
governor also urged him to swear by the Emperor as by a 
god, and to give proof of his repentance by saying, with 
the people, "Away with the godless." But Polycarp 
looked with a firm eye at the crowd that stood by; then, 
pointing directly at them and with his eyes lifted to 
heaven, he cried : 

"Away with the godless!" 

The governor urged him further. "Curse Christ," 
said he, "and I will release you." 

"Eighty-six years have I served Him," answered 
Polycarp. "He has done me nothing but good, — and 
how could I curse Him, my Lord and Saviour.^ If you 
wish to know what I am, I tell you frankly that I am a 
Christian." 

When the people heard this confession they demanded 
that Polycarp should be burned at the stake; and they 
themselves gathered wood from the workshops and the 
baths. The Roman governor was obliged to give his 
consent; and Polycarp met his death with the same 
steadfastness and courage which he had shown at his 
trial. 

Men and women of all classes and of all ages were 
put to death for their faith; but the number of the 
Christians increased with each persecution. 

"Go on," said one of the Christian writers to the 
Roman rulers; "go on, — torture us and grind us to 
dust. Our numbers increase more rapidly than you 
mow us down. The blood of the martyrs is the seed of 
the Church." 

At length a time came when the persecutions ceased 
and the Emperors and all of their officers became Chris- 
tians. This happened while Constantine was on the 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 



111 



throne. His name is preserved for us in the name of 
the city of Constantinople, which he founded and made 
the new capital of the Empire. During the conversion 
early part of his reign he had to struggle for tfne '*°^'^°" 
power against several rivals. At one time, the *^"^ ^•^•* 
story goes, while he was marching rapidly from Gaul 
mto Italy to attack his enemies, he saw a flaming cross 
in the sky, in broad daylight, and on the cross were 
these words: "In this sign, .^^._ 

conquer!" 

In the battle which followed, 
Constantine did conquer, and 
he believed that he owed his 
victory to the God of the 
Christians. So, immediately 
afterwards, he issued an order 
to stop the persecutions and 
to permit the Christians to 
practice their religion openly 
and in peace. 

After this, Constantine be- 
came a Christian himself, and 
did all that he could to favor 
their cause. Temples were 
taken away from the priests 
of the old gods, and given to the Christians as churches; 
and only Christians were appointed to offices under the 
Empire. When Constantine died, his sons 
remained in the same faith; and the num- Itl^Z^"^ 
ber of the Christians grew rapidly. At last ''*^"'''"" 
the worship of the old gods was done away with 
altogether, and Christianity became the religion of the 
whole Empire. 

As the number of Christians increased, it had been 




A BISHOP ON HIS THRONE 



112 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



necessary for the Church to have some form of organiza- 
tion. Such an organization had begun to grow long 
before the time of Constantine. First we 
tion of the find somc of the Christians set aside to act as 
priests, and have charge of the services in the 
churches. We find next, among the priests in each city, 
one who was styled the "overseeing priest" or 
bishop, whose duty it was to look after the affairs of the 
churches in his district. Gradually, too, the bishops in 
the more important cities came to have cer- 
tain powers over the bishops of the smaller 
cities about them; these were then called 
"arch-bishops." Finally, there was 
one out of the many hundred bishops 
of the Church who was looked up to 
more than any other person, and 
whose advice was sought in all important 
Church questions. This was because he 
had charge of the Church in Rome, the 
most important city of the Empire, and 
because he was believed to be the suc- 
cessor of Saint Peter, the chief of the 
Apostles. The name "Pope" (which 
means father) was given to him; and it 
was his duty to watch over all the 
affairs of the Church on earth, as a father 
watches over the affairs of his family. 
Besides these Church officers, there was another 
class of men who devoted their whole lives to the service 
of God. They were those who felt that the 
world was so wicked that they must flee to 
waste and desert places, in order to serve God 
acceptably and to escape the world's temptations. 
They were called hermits, and in course of time there 




A MONK 



Hermits 

and 

monks 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 113 

came to be a considerable number of them. Then the 
practice arose of gathering together a group of such 
persons under a single head, and giving them definite 
rules to live by. The name monk was then given to 
them, and the place where they dwelt was called a 
monastery. In time monasteries came to be built 
everywhere, and the monks played a great part as 
missionaries among the barbarian tribes outside the 
Empire. In a later chapter you will read more about 
the life led by these monks, and of the many services 
which they rendered to the world. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Eead the account in the New Testament of Paul's arrest 

impnso.ment, and appeal to Eome. (Acts, c\s xxi- 

2. Tell in your own words why Eome persecuted the Christians. 

^^Churciy "*^'' ^^'"^ "^ '^' "^""''y'' ^^^ the seed of the 

'■ '"^'^housan^^^a^rfarof"'^" "^^'^' ''''' ''' ''^'^ ^^ ^ 



XVIII 
THE ANCIENT GERMANS 

Points to be Noted 

Kelation of the ancient Germans to modern peoples; where 

they lived. 
Their personal appearance; their lack of civilization; meaning 

of civilization. 
German houses and manner of living. 
Battle of the Teutoberg Forest; German manner of fighting; 

relation of the leader to his followers. 
Their government; their religion; readiness to learn of other 

peoples. 

We must now turn to the story of the new race which 

was to accept Christianity, mingle with the peoples of 

the Roman Empire, and form the European 

cJimam nations that have founded the New Europes 

in America, Australia, and Africa. 

This new race was the race of the ancient Germans, 

the direct ancestors of the peoples who now speak 

German, English, Dutch, and Scandinavian. 

Sey*"^ They lived then, as part of their descendants 

^'^^^ still do, in the lands extending from the North 

Sea and the Baltic on the north, to the Danube River 

on the south; and from the Rhine on the west, to the 

rivers Elbe and Oder on the east. This region is now 

one of the most flourishing countries in the world, with 

many great cities and millions of inhabitants. At that 

time it had no cities at all and but few inhabitants. The 

people had just begun to settle down and cultivate the 

soil, where before they had moved from place to place 

in search of fresh pasturage for their flocks and better 

hunting. The surface of the country was still almost 



THE ANCIENT GERMANS 115 

as Nature had made it. Gloomy forests stretched for 
miles and miles where now there are sunny fields; and 
wide and treacherous marshes lay where the land now 
stands firm and solid. 

In this wild country, for many years, the Germans 
had room to live their own life. To the east were the 
Slavs, a people still ruder and more uncivilized than 
themselves. To the west and south were provinces of 




AN OLD GERMAN VILLAGE 

the Roman Empire, separated from them by the broad 
streams of the Rhine and the Danube. 

The Germans and Romans were very different in many 
ways. The Romans were short and dark, while the 
Germans were tall — very tall, they seemed to 
the Romans, — with fair skin, light hair, and of the 

1 ii A, ,. ,.. Germans 

clear blue eyes. Also their ways of livmg — 

their clothing and houses, their occupations and mode 



116 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

of warfare, their government and religion — all differed 
greatly from the Roman ways. 

We may sum up the difference by saying that the 
Romans were civilized, while the Germans were uncivil- 
TheGer- ^^^^' Civilization is the art of living together 
IJITJiviUzTd ^^ cities, and it is contrasted with the rude 
family and village life of the savage and 
barbarian peoples. Civilization means better houses, 
better food, and better clothing. It means the wearing 
of spun and woven fabrics of wool, Knen, etc., instead 
of skin garments. It means better roads and bridges, 
and sewers and other public conveniences. It also 
means organized governments and orderly societies, in 
place of savage independence and lawlessness; it means 
schools, museums, and libraries; more reasonable laws, 
and more spiritual religion. In all of these things the 
Romans were in advance of the Germans; but in course 
of time the Germans were to learn from the Romans all 
of the civilization that they had learned from the Greeks, 
or had developed for themselves. 

When the Germans first began to play a part in history, 
their clothing was made chiefly from the skins of animals. 
Usually it did not cover the whole body, the arms and 
shoulders at least being left free. When the German 
was in a lazy mood he would sit for days by the fire, clad 
only in a long cloak of skins; then, when he prepared to 
hunt or to fight, he would put on close-fitting garments 
and leave his cloak behind. 

The houses in which the Germans lived were mere 
cabins or huts. Nothing was used but wood, and that 
Their was not planed smooth, but was roughly 

hewn into boards and timbers. Sometimes 
a cave would be used for a dwelling, and often a house 
of timber would have an underground room attached to 



THE ANCIENT GERMANS 117 

it; this was for warmth in winter, and also for protection 
against their enemies. Sometimes in summer the people 
made huts of twigs, woven together in much the same 
way that a basket is woven. Such houses were very 
flimsy, but they had the advantage of being easily 
moved from place to place. Often, too, the house 
sheltered not only the family, but the horses and cattle 
as well, all living under one roof. You can imagine that 
this was not a very healthful plan. 

The Germans gained their living partly from hunting 
and partly from tilling the soil. They also depended a 
great deal upon their herds and flocks for 
meat, as well as for milk and the foods which of 

living 

they made from milk. The care of the cattle 
and the tilling of the soil, as well as the housework, fell 
chiefly to the women; and we may here note that the 
position of the women was higher, and that they played 
a more important part, among the Germans than among 
the ancient Greeks and Romans. 

Most of the occupations of which we now see so much 
were not known to the Germans. There was hardly any 
trading either among themselves or with other nations. 
Each family supplied its own needs by making the 
things necessary to its use. The women spun and 
wove a little linen and other cloth, tanned leather, made 
soap (which perhaps was first invented by the Germans), 
and made a few other things. But all this was only for 
use in their own families. There were no trading places, 
and almost no commerce, except in a few things such as 
skins and amber. One occupation, however, was con- 
sidered good enough for any man to follow. This was 
the trade of the blacksmith. The skillful smith was 
highly honored, for he not only made tools to work with, 
but also weapons with which to hunt and to fight. 



118 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

But usually the free man considered it beneath his 
dignity to work in any way. He preferred to hunt 
Battle of or to fight; and when not doing either, 
berg^ForeTt would probably be found by the fire, sleeping 
(9 A.D.) ^j, idling away his time in games of chance. 

He was a warrior more than anything else; and the 
Romans had reason to know that the Germans were 
very stubborn fighters. At one time, while Augustus 
was Emperor, three legions of the Roman army, under 
an officer named Varus, were entrapped and slain at a 
place in Germany called the Teutoberg forest. The 
shock of this defeat was felt so keenly at Rome that, 
long after this, the Emperor would awake at night from 
restless sleep, and cry out: "Varus, Varus, give me back 
my legions!" 

After this defeat the Romans learned to be more 
careful in fighting the Germans. The Romans had the 
advantage of better weapons, better knoA'vledge of how 
to fight, and greater wealth with which to carry on a war. 
So, in spite of some decided victories over the soldiers 
of the Empire, the Germans were obliged for many 
years to acknowledge Rome as the stronger; and Roman 
soldiers were even stationed in some parts of the German 
territory. 

Among the Germans no man dared to flee from the 

field of battle, for cowardice was punished with death. 

To leave one's shield behind was the greatest 

The leader „ . , , ,. i • .1 

and his of crimcs, and made a man disgraced m the 

sight of all. Bravery was the chief of virtues, 
and it was this alone which could give a man the leader- 
ship of an army. The general was chosen for his valor, 
and he kept his position only so long as he continued to 
show himself brave. He must be an example to all his 
followers, and must fight in the front ranks. When a 



THE ANCIENT GERMANS 119 

general was chosen by his fellow warriors, they raised 
him upon their shields as a sign of their choice. If he 
proved less worthy than they had thought, they could 
easily choose another general in his place. The leader 
and his men were constantly reminded that upon their 
strength and courage depended the safety and happiness 
of their wives and children; for their families often 
followed the army to battle, and witnessed the combats 
from rude carts or wagons, mingling their shrill cries with 
the din of battle. 

Times of peace among these early Germans would 
seem to us much like war. Every man carried his 
weapons about with him, and used them . 
freely. Human life was held cheap, and a J^^j!*^® 
quarrel was often settled by the sword. There 
was no strong government to punish wrong and protect 
the weak; so men had to protect and help themselves. 
A man was bound to take up the quarrels, or feuds, of 
his family, and avenge by blood a wrong done to any 
of his relatives. As a result, there was constant fighting. 
Violent deeds were frequent, and their punishment was 
light. If a man injured another, or even committed 
murder, the law might be satisfied, and the offender 
excused, by the payment of a fine to the injured man or 
to his family. 

Some tribes of the Germans had kings, but others 
had not. Even among those tribes that had kings, the 
power of the ruler in time of peace was not 
very great. The kings were not born kings, ment of the 

•^ ° ^ c 1 1 Germans 

but were chosen by the consent of the people. 
Some few families, because they had greater wealth or 
for some other reason, were looked upon with such 
respect that they were considered noble; and kings were 
chosen from among their number. Yet each man stood 



120 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



upon his own merits, too; and neither wealth nor birth 
could keep a king in power, if he proved evil in rule or 
weak in battle. The rulers decided only the matters 
that were of small importance. When it came to serious 
matters, such as making war or changing the customs 
of the tribe, the "folk" assembled together and decided 
for itself. In their assemblies they showed disapproval 
by loud murmurs, while 
approval was shown by 
clashing their shields 
and spears together. 
Every free man had the 
right to attend the folk- 
meeting of his district, 
and also the general 
assembly of the whole 
tribe. 

At the period of which 
speaking, the 
Germans did 
not believe in 
as we do, but 
The names of 
their gods are 
preserved in the names 
which we have for the 
days of the week. From the god Tyr (Tin) comes 
Tuesday, from Woden comes Wednesday, and from Thor 
comes Thursday. 

Tyr was the god of courage and of w^ar. The sword 
was his especial emblem. He inspired men to perform 
heroic deeds in battle, and to endure suffering without 
flinching. Songs were sung in his honor, places named 
for him, and even human beings sacrificed to him. 



we are 

Their 
religion 

one God 
in many, 
some 



of 




WODEN 



THE ANCIENT GERMANS 121 

Woden was the chief of the gods, and was worshiped 
especially as the god of the sky. Because he controlled 
the winds, it was natural that he should be the god to 
whom those people looked who depended upon the sea, 
so he became the protector of sailors. He was also a 
god of war, and the spear was his emblem. To his 
palace, Valhalla, the souls of dead heroes were borne 
to spend their days in fighting and in feasting. 

Next in importance to 
Woden was Thor, the god of 
thunder and lightning. His 
emblem was a hammer. 
When it thundered the people 
said that Thor with his 
hammer was fighting the ice- 
giants; so he was regarded 
as the enemy of winter, and 
the giver of good crops. 

Besides these chief gods, 
there were many less impor- 
tant ones. Among these were 
spirits of the forest and rivers, 
and the gnomes or dwarfs 
who dwelt in the earth, guard- 
ing the stores of precious 
metals and jewels which it 

contains. Long after the old religion had come to an 
end, the descendants of the ancient Germans remem- 
bered these spirits, and stories of their tricks and good 
deeds were handed down from father to son. In this 
way the Germans kept something of the old religion in 
the beautiful fairy tales which we still love; and in our 
Christmas and Easter usages we find other traces of 
their old beliefs and customs. 




122 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

When missionaries went among them, however, the 
Germans became Christians. This shows one of the 
Readiness greatest quaHties which they possessed. They 
Germans wcrc wilUng and able to learn from other 
to earn peoples, and to change their customs to suit 
new conditions. Other races who did not learn so readily, 
like the American Indians, have declined and died away 
when they have been brought in contact with a higher 
civilization. But the Germans had the ability to learn 
from the Greeks and the Romans; so they grew from a 
rude half-barbarous people, into great and civilized 
nations. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Describe the German village pictured on p. 115. 

2. Make a list of the good qualities of the early Germans. 

3. Do the same for their bad qualities. 

4. In what ways were the Germans like the American Indians? 

In what ways were they different? 

5. Eead stories of the German gods. (Mabie, Norse Stories; 

Bradish, Old Norse Stories; Guerber, Myths of Northern 
Lands.) 

6. Eead "The Story of Wulf the Saxon Boy," in Jane Andrews' 

"Ten Boys." 



XIX 
THE GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 

Points to be Noted 

The Germans as heirs to the Romans. 

The first invaders; Goths on the Danube; their conversion to 
Christianity by Ulfilas. 

The coming of the Huns; admission of the Goths into the Em- 
pire; battle of Adrianople; its results. 

Character of Alaric; his invasion of Italy; the sack of Rome; 
Alaric's death and burial; the Gothic kingdom in Spain, 

Why other Germans invaded the Empire; its fall. 

The Franks in Gaul; what Clovis did for them; conversion of 
the Franks; extent of Clovis's kingdom; relations of the 
Franks and Romans; Gaul becomes France. 

In the two centuries from 378 a.d. to 568, the Ger- 
mans overthrew the government of the Roman Empire, 
destroyed many of its rich cities, and in some The 
places swept away nearly all traces of Roman the Tleirl of 
civilization. On the whole, however, more ^"^^ 
was preserved than was destroyed, so that the German 
invaders became not merely the successors of Rome, but 
also her imitators and heirs. 

The people which took the lead in breaking through 
the boundaries of the Empire, and who did most to bring 
about the downfall of Roman rule in the West, ^^ ^ ^ 

Ihe Croths 

was the nation of the Goths. In the latter part on the 

^ Danube 

of the fourth century after Christ, the Goths 
were dwelling along the shores of the Black Sea and just 
north of the lower course of the Danube River. There 
they had been living for more than a hundred years, and 
in this time they had learned from their Roman neighbors 
many civilized ways. 

123 



124 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

The greatest thing that they learned was Christianity. 
This was brought to them by one of their own men, 
They named Ulfilas, who spent a number of years 

chHsTfans ^^ Constantinople, the city which Constantine 
had made the capital of the Roman world. 
There he became a Christian priest, and when he 
returned to his people he began to work as a missionary 
among them. His chief work was to translate the 
Bible from the Greek language into the Gothic. This 
task was made all the harder by the fact that before 
he could begin he had to invent an alphabet in which to 
write down the Gothic words, for the Goths had then no 
written language. After his translation was made, 
the Goths rapidly became Christians. Their rulers 
were beginning to build up a great kingdom about the 
Danube and the Black Sea, when suddenly an event 
happened which was to change all their later history, and 
the history of the world as well. This was the coming 
of the Huns into Europe. 

The Huns were not like Europeans; indeed the Goths 
and the Romans thought that they were scarcely human 
The Huns ^^ ^^^' "^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ Asia, and were 
Gofhs '^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ th^ Chinese. Their strange feat- 
ures and customs, and their shrill voices, were 
entirely new to Europe. An old Gothic writer gives us 
a picture of them. ''Nations whom they could never 
have defeated in fair fight," he says, "fled in horror 
from those frightful faces,— if, indeed, I may call them 
faces, for they are nothing but shapeless black pieces of 
flesh, with little points instead of eyes. They have no 
hair on their cheeks or chins. Instead, the sides of their 
faces show deep furrowed scars; for hot irons are applied, 
with characteristic ferocity, to the face of every boy that 
is born among them, so that blood is drawn from his 



GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 125 

cheeks. The men are little in size, but quick and active 
in their motions; and they are especially skillful in rid- 
ing. They are broad-shouldered, are good at the use 
of the bow and arrow, have strong necks and are always 
holding their heads high in their pride. To sum up, 
these beings, under the forms of men, hide the fierce 
natures of beasts." 




A HUN WARRIOR 

The Goths were brave, but they could not stand 
against such men as these. They fled in terror before 
the countless hordes of the new-comers; and 
"stretching out their hands from afar, with flee into the 
loud lamentations," they begged the Roman ^""^"^ 
oflficers to permit them to cross the Danube River and 
settle in the Roman lands. 



126 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Battle of 
Adrianople 

(378 A.D.) 



The Roman Emperor granted their request; and the 
Goths might have become his peaceful and loyal sub- 
jects had they not been mistreated by Roman 
officers. They were too high-spirited and war- 
like to submit to oppression, and they soon 
rose in rebellion. In a great battle, at Adrianople, they 
completely defeated the Romans and slew the Emperor. 
Then they wandered about at will, ravaging and plunder- 
ing Roman territory, until the new Emperor made peace 
by giving them lands on which to settle. 




GOTHS ON THE MARCH 

Some years later the Goths were under a young and 
ambitious ruler named Alaric, who had learned Roman 
ways of fighting. The Empire was now weak and badly 
ruled. So, as an old Gothic writer tells us, Alaric "took 
counsel with his people, and they determined to carve 
out new kingdoms for themselves, rather than, through 
idleness, to continue the subjects of others." 

Alaric set his heart upon winning Italy for his people, 
and hoped to capture Rome itself, with its rich treasures 
Alaric leads g^^^^^^^^ from the cuds of the earth. For a 
imo^ta?^ time he was opposed by the gigantic Stilicho, 
a German general in the service of Rome. 
But when Stilicho was put to death at the order of his 



GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 127 

jealous master, there was no one who could resist the 
Goths. Alaric marched upon Rome, and three times, in 
three successive years, laid siege to the city. 

When asked what terms he would give the people of 
Rome, Alaric demanded as ransom all their gold, silver, 
and precious goods, together with their slaves who were of 
barbarian blood. In dismay they asked : "And what then 
will you leave to us?" "Your lives," he grimly replied. 

When Alaric advanced the third time upon Rome, 
its gates were opened by Roman slaves. For the first 
time since the burning of Rome by the Gauls, sack of 
eight hundred years before, the Romans now ^**"*® (**®) 
saw a foreign foe within their gates — slaying, destroy- 
ing, plundering, committing endless outrages upon the 
people and their property. To the Romans it seemed 
that the end of the world was surely at hand. 

At the end of the sixth day Alaric and his Goths 
came forth from the city, carrying their booty and their 
captives with them. They now marched Death 
into the south of Italy, destroying all who «f^*^"<^ 
resisted and plundering what took their fancy. But in 
the midst of their preparations to cross over into Sicily 
their leader, Alaric — "Alaric the Bold," as they loved 
to call him^suddenly sickened. After an illness of only 
a few days, he died, leaving the Goths weakened by the 
loss of the greatest king they were ever to know. 

Alaric's life had been one of the strangest in history, 
and his burial was equally strange. His followers 
wished to lay him where no enemy might His 
disturb his grave. To this end they com- ^""^* 
pelled their captives to dig a new channel for a little 
river near by, and turn aside its waters. Then, in the 
old bed of the stream, they buried their beloved leader, 
clad in his richest armor, and mounted upon his favorite 



128 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

war horse. When all was finished, the stream was 
turned back into its old channel, and the captives were 
slain, in order that they might not reveal the place of 
the burial. And there, to this day, rest the bones of 
Alaric, the Gothic King. 

Of the Goths after the death of Alaric, we need say 
very little. Their new leader was a wise and moderate 
man. He saw that his people, though they could fight 
well, and overturn a state, were not yet ready to take 
the government of Rome for themselves. 

"I wish," he said, "not to destroy, but to restore and 
to maintain the prosperity of the Roman Empire." 

It was agreed that the Goths should march into Gaul 

and Spain, drive out the barbarians who had pushed in 

there, and rule the land in the name of the 

The Goths rrn . i 

settle in Empcror. This they did; and there they 
established a power which became strong and 
prosperous, and lasted until new barbarians from the 
north, and the Moors from Africa, pressed in upon 
them, and brought, at the same time, their kingdom 
and their history to an end. 

While the Goths were winning lands and booty within 
the Empire, the other Germans could not long remain 
idle. They saw that the legions had been recalled from 
the frontiers in order to guard Italy. They saw their 
own people suffering from hunger and want. Behind 
them, too, they felt the pressure of other nations, driv- 
ing them from their pastures and hunting grounds. 

So the news of Rome's weakness and Alaric's victories 
filled other peoples with eagerness to try their fortunes 
Other in the southern lands. Other tribes began 

?nt™^"^ to stream across the borders of the Empire, 
the Empire g^^^^ ^^^ stream became a flood, and the flood 
a deluge. All Germany seemed stirred up and hurled 



GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 129 

against the Empire. Wave after wave swept south- 
ward; horde after horde appeared within the limits of 
the Empire, seeking lands and goods. 

For two hundred years this went on. Armies and 
nations went wandering up and down, burning, robbing, 
slaying, and making captives. It was a time 
of confusion, suffering, and change; when of the 
the "uncouth Goth," the "horrid Hun," and ^"'''"^ 
wild-eyed peoples of many names, struggled for the 




FRANKS CROSSING THE RHINE 

lands of Rome. All of the Roman Empire in the West, — 
Gaul, Spain, Africa, Britain, and Italy — was overrun by 
the invaders, and the rule passed from the Roman 
Emperor into the hands of German chieftains. 

It seemed that everything was being overturned and 
nothing built up to take the place of what was destroyed. 
But this was only in seeming. Unknowingly, these 
nations were laying the foundations of a new civilization 
and a new world. For, out of this mixing of peoples and 
institutions, this blending of civilizations, arose the 



130 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



nations, the states, the institutions, of the world of 
today. 

Each of the German nations helped in its own way to 
make the Europe of the present day, but the Franks 
were the only people who succeeded, on the 
seTtTein continent, in building a permanent kingdom 
^^"^ within the boundaries of the old Empire. A 

hundred years before the Goths crossed the Danube, 

bands of Franks had been 
allowed to cross the Rhine, 
from their homes on the 
eastern bank of that river, 
and to establish themselves 
as the allies or subjects of 
Rome on the western bank. 
There they had dwelt, gain- 
ing in numbers and in 
power, until news came of 
the deeds of Alaric. Then 
the Franks, too, began to 
build up a power of their 
own within the Roman 
territory; and gradually 
they occupied what is now 
northern France, together 
with Belgium and Holland. 
The Franks were yet far 
ARMS OF FRANKS ^^^^ being stroug as a 

people. They were still heathen, and they had not yet 
learned, Uke the Goths, to wear armor or to fight on 
Their early horscback. They went to war half-naked, 
weakness armed only with a barbed javelin, a sword, 
and a short battleax. They were not united, but were 
divided into a large number of small tribes, each ruled 




GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 131 



over by its own petty king. Besides all this, they had 
many rivals, even in Gaul itself. 

It was mainly due to one man that the Frankish 
power was not overcome, but instead was able to over- 
come all its enemies. This man was Clovis, whatciovis 
the King of one of the little bands of the them'^ 
Franks. Though he was ^^^^"^^^^ 
only sixteen years of age when he 
succeeded his father as King of his 
tribe, he soon proved himself to be 
one of the ablest, but alas ! one of the 
craftiest and crudest leaders of this 
crafty and cruel people. In the 
thirty years that he reigned, he 
united all the Franks under his own 
rule; he greatly improved the arms 
and organization of the army; he 
extended their territory to the south, 
east, and west; and he caused his 
people to be baptized as Christians. 
A story is told of Clovis which 
shows the rude, independent spirit of 
the Franks, and the ruth- ^ 

' , Story of 

lessness of their king, ciovis and 

*^ the vase 

When the booty was be- 
ing divided by lot after a battle, 
Clovis wished to obtain a beautiful 
vase that had been taken from one 
of the churches, that he might return it to the priests. 
But one of his Franks cried out : 

** Thou shalt have only what the lot gives thee ! " And 
saying this he broke the vase with his battleax. 

Clovis could do nothing then to resent this insult. 
But the next year he detected this soldier in a fault. 




A FRANKISH CHIEF 



13^2 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



The Franks 

become 

Christians 



and slew him in the presence of the army, saying: "It 
shall be done to thee as thou didst to the vase!" 

When Clovis first became King, the Franks worshiped 
the old gods, Woden and Thor. Before he died, however, 

he and 

most of 

his people 
had been baptized 
and become Chris- 
tians. His conver- 
sion came about in 
this way. While he 
was fighting against 
some neighboring 
Germans, he saw his 
Franks one day 
driven from the 
field. He prayed to 
the old gods to turn 
the defeat into vic- 
tory, but still his 
troops gave way. 
Then he bethought 
him that his wife 
Clotilda had long 
been urging him to 
give up his old gods 
and become a Chris- 
tian. He determined 
now to try the God of his wife, so he cried out: 

"O Christ Jesus, I beseech Thee for aid! If Thou 
wilt grant me victory over these enemies, I will believe 
in Thee and be baptized in Thy name ! " 

With this he renewed the battle, and at last won a 




BAPTISM OF CLOVIS 



GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 133 

great victory. As a result, Clovis became a Christian, 
and his warriors followed his example. But Clovis's 
conversion was only half a conversion. He changed 
his beliefs, but not his conduct. When the story was 
told him of the way Jesus suffered death on the cross, 
he grasped his battleax fiercely and exclaimed: '*If 
I had been there with my Franks I would have 
revenged His wrongs!" In spite of his conversion, 
Clovis remained a rude warrior, a cruel and unscrupu- 
lous ruler. 

Before his death, in the year 511, Clovis had won 
for the Franks a kingdom which reached from the Rhine 
on the north and east, almost to the Pyrenees ' 
Mountains on the south. To all this land, becomes 

Fr3.tic6 

which before had borne the name Gaul, the 
name "Francia" was gradually applied, from the race 
that conquered it; and under the name of France it is 
still one of the most powerful nations of Europe. 

When the Franks conquered Gaul, they did not kill 
or drive out the people who already lived there. They 
allowed the Romans to keep most of their 
lands, but made them pay to the Prankish Franks and 
kings the taxes which they had before paid to 
the Emperor. The old inhabitants were now highly 
civilized, while the Franks were just taking the first 
steps in civilization. As the years went by, however, 
the differences between the conquerors and the conquered 
became less. The Romans found that times were 
changed, and they had to adopt the habits of the Franks 
in some respects. The Franks had already adopted the 
reUgion of their subjects; they began also to adopt their 
language and some of their customs. In this way, the 
two peoples at last became as one; but it was several 
centuries before this end was fully reached. 



134 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. What New England missionary did work among the Indians 

similar to that done by Ulfilas among the Goths? 

2. Find out what you can about Attila, the King of the Huns. 

(Bead in Price, Wandering Heroes, pp. 134-150.) 

3. Head the story of the war between the Franks and the 

Mohammedans. (Harding, Story of the Middle Ages, 
ch. xi.) 

4. Read the story of Charlemagne, the greatest King of the 

Franks. (Harding, Story of the Middle Ages, ch. xii.) 



XX 

THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 

Points to be Noted 

Where tlie English came from; their liking for the sea; how 

they first came to Britain; date. 
Conquest of Britain; the legends of King Arthur; what became 

of the Britons. 
The seven English kingdoms; English local government; the 

Witenagemot; classes of the people. 
Disappearance of Roman civilization and Christianity froni 

England; how Gregory became interested; the coming of 

Augustine; conversion of the English; what the monks did 

for England. 
Union of the English under the King of Wessex. 

Among the German tribes who invaded the Roman 
Empire were the ancestors of the English people of 
today. They were then called Angles, Saxons, ^^^ ^^^ 
and Jutes. For many generations they had EngUsh^m 
dwelt in northern Germany, by the shores of 
the North Sea and the Baltic. Their ways of living 
were like those of the other Germans of that time. They 
had never been governed by the Romans, so they knew 
nothing of Roman civilization or of the Christian reli- 
gion. More than any other Germans, perhaps, they 
loved the sea, a Uking which their situation made it easy 
for them to gratify. They delighted to swoop down on 
unsuspecting coasts, gather what booty they could, and 
then take to their ships again before resistance could be 
formed. A Roman poet sings of the Old English in 
these words: 

"Foes, are they, fierce beyond other foes, and cunning 
as they are fierce. The sea is their school of war, and 

135 



136 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



They come 
to Britain 
(449 A.D.) 



the storm is their friend. They are sea- wolves that 
prey on the pillage of the world!" 

So long as the Romans ruled Britain, the English 
made only pirate raids on that land. But when the 
Goths came into Italy, it became necessary for Rome 
to withdraw her legions from Britain, and to leave the 
Britons to defend themselves. Fierce tribes from Ire- 
land and Scotland then attacked them; and the Britons, 
owing to their long rule by Rome, were not able to beat 
off these enemies. 

Then a ruler of the 
Britons, about the 

year 449, 

invited a 

band of 
the Old English sea- 
rovers to assist his 
people against these 
enemies. He prom- 
ised to supply the 

English with provisions during the war, and to give them 
for their own an island near the mouth of the Thames 
River. The bargain was agreed to, and the English 
came, under the lead, it is said, of two brothers, named 
Hengist and Horsa. They soon defeated the enemies of 
the Britons, and freed them from that danger. Then 
they quarreled with their employers, on the ground that 
the provisions furnished them were not sufficient. 

"Unless more plentiful supplies are brought us," 
they said, "we will break our agreement with you, and 
ravage the whole country. " 

The English were strengthened by the arrival of many 
new shiploads from their home lands, and war with the 
Britons followed. It lasted for nearly two centuries, and 




OLD ENGLISH SHIPS 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 137 

ended in the conquest by the new-comers of all that 
part of the island (England, or ** Angle-land") which 
we still call by their name. We know very _. 

, „ , . T They con- 

little of the details of this struggle. It was quer the 

Britons 

a long and bitter contest, with much fierce 
and cruel fighting. Little by little, the Britons were 
driven back toward the west and north. When cap- 
tured, they were either killed or enslaved. The Roman 
cities were either destroyed by fire, or were left unoccu- 
pied and fell into ruins. Fresh bands of the English 
kept coming in, bringing their families, their cattle, and 
their goods. 

In later days, the 
descendants of the Brit- 
ons loved to tell stories 
of a great King, named 
Arthur, who led his 
people to many vic- 
tories against the Eng- 
lish. King Arthur was 
pure in thought and 
deed, and was with- old English warriors 

out fear. It was said (From an old manuscript) 

that he was mysteriously cast up by the sea, a new-born 
babe, to be heir to the kingdom. When he became King 
he gathered warriors like himself in council, , ^ , 

^ Legend of 

about the famous Round Table, and led them King 

. Arthur 

to war. He bore an enchanted sword of vic- 
tory, and protected his people from their enemies for 
many years. At last he was miraculously carried away 
to a happy island, there to live until he should come 
again to rule Britain once more. So many stories 
gathered about the name of Arthur that the tales of the 
Knights of the Round Table are almost as numerous 




138 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




MAP OF SAXON KINGDOMS 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 139 

and famous as the thousand and one tales of the Arabian 
Nights. 

In spite of King Arthur — if there really was such a 
person — the Britons were pushed back into the moun- 
tains of the west. There, under the name of ^. „ .^ 

The Britons 

the Welsh, they remain to this day. All of ^^^^^ ^^^ 
the eastern, central, and southeastern parts 
of the island, however, passed into the hands of the 
English, who set up seven separate kingdoms. 

The Jutes settled in the southeastern district, which 
formed the kingdom of Kent. The southern coast was 
occupied by the Saxons. Those nearest the rpj^^^g^gj^ 
Jutes formed the kingdom of the South Saxons |?Jf ^j^^^J^^ 
or "Sussex." Farther west were the West 
Saxons, with their kingdom of "Wessex." Just north 
of the Jutes were the East Saxons, in what is called 
"Essex." The greater part of the eastern coast, as 
well as the interior of the country, was in the hands of 
the Angles, who formed the kingdoms of "East Angha, " 
"Mercia, " and "Northumberland" (the land north of 
the Humber River). The names Kent, Sussex, and Essex 
are still used as the names of English counties; and a 
number of places in the United States also bear these 
names, which were given them by settlers who came 
from those parts of England to the New World. 

The local governments which the Old English set up 
are important, because they grew into forms of govern- 
ment which the first English settlers estab- ^^^^^^_ 
lished in Virginia and Massachusetts. They J[^|**^^2/jgij 
lived in small villages of rude and comfortless 
huts, and each village and its lands formed a " township. " 
The townships, in turn, were grouped into districts 
called "hundreds." Each hundred had its own public 
meeting, called the "moot," which decided the affairs 



140 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

of the hundred. The warriors from all the hundreds 
of each kingdom met in a "folk-moot," or meeting of 
all the people. When the small kingdoms were com- 
bined, in later days, into larger kingdoms, these folk- 
moots became '* shire-moots, " or county courts, and the 
original kingdoms became "shires," or counties of the 
larger kingdom. For the whole kingdom there was 
then a meeting of the wise men called the "Witan, " 
or the " Witenagemot. " 

At the head of each kingdom was a king. Below the 
king there were two classes of freemen — the nobles, 
who soon came to be called "thegns, " and the common 
people. Below the freemen were the "slaves," who 
could be bought and sold like cattle, and had no rights 
at all. Then there was a class of "unfree" people, who 
could not be bought and sold, yet in some ways had not 
the rights of freemen, and could not go and come as 
they pleased. 

The life of these Old English was very rude and simple. 
They had no great cities, and almost the only roads 
„. and bridges were the ones which the Romans 

Disappear- ° 

Christfanit ^^^ built. At first the English had no statues, 
no paintings, no books. When they drove 
out the Britons, they drove out with them all the Roman 
culture. The Enghsh were still heathen, worshiping 
the Teutonic gods, Woden and Thor. Christianity 
disappeared in those parts of the island which passed 
into their hands. The priests were slain or driven out, 
and the churches were destroyed or fell into ruins. The 
Britons continued to be Christians, but for some time 
they refused to send missionaries among their enemies. 
So it happened that the chief missionary to the English 
came, not from among the Britons, but from far-off 
Rome. 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 141 

There, one day, a monk named Gregory saw some 
boys offered for sale as slaves. Their bodies were fair, 
their faces beautiful, and their hair soft and Gregory and 
fine. Gregory asked whence they came, slaves 

"From Britain," was the answer. "There the people, 
are all fair, like these boys." 

Then he asked whether they were Christians, and 
was told that they were still heathen. 

"Alas," said he, "what a pity that lads of such fair 
faces should lack inward grace." He wished next to 
know the name of their nation. 

"They are called Angles," was the reply. 

"They should be called angels, not Angles,'"' said 
Gregory; "for they have angelic faces. What is the 
name of their king?" 

"Aella, " was the answer. 

"Alleluia," said Gregory, making another pun, "the 
praise of God the Creator must be sung in those parts. " 

Gregory was so deeply impressed by the sight of these 
boys that he wished to go himself as a missionary to the 
English; but this he could not do. A few Gregory 
years later he became Pope. He was very If^nariTs'^to 
learned and pious, and did so much to benefit ^"^*^"^ 
the Church that he is called Gregory the Great. He 
still remembered the English, and soon sent Augustine, a 
pious monk of Rome, to preach the Gospel to that people. 

Augustine, with forty companions, landed in the 
English kingdom of Kent, in the year 597. The King 
of Kent had married a Christian princess of 
Gaul, and was disposed to deal kindly with lands in 
Augustine. But he received him in the open 
air, for fear some magic might be used if the meeting 
were held under a roof. The monks came up in pro- 
cession, singing, and carrying a silver cross and a picture 



142 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

of Christ. After listening to the preaching of Augustine, 
the King said: 

"Your words and promises are fair, but they are new 
to us. I cannot approve of them so far as to forsake 
the religion which I have so long followed, with the 
whole English nation. But we will give you food and 
housing, and we do not forbid you to preach and to 
gain as many as you can to your religion. " 

The King gave Augustine and his companions a place 
to live in, in his capital, Canterbury. He also per- 
_, ^^, mitted 

The King 

of Kent them to 

converted 

repair 
an old Christian 
church there, and 
to build a monas- 
tery. Soon the 
earnest preaching 
and holy living of 
the monks im- 
pressed the King 
and his people, and they became Christians. Thus 
Canterbury became the oldest of the English churches. 
When the Church was organized a little later for all 
England, the Archbishop of Canterbury was made its 
head, under the Pope. 

Other missionaries worked in different parts of Eng- 
land, but it was nearly a hundred years before all England 
accepted Christianity. Sometimes, when a kingdom 
seemed completely converted, a new King would come 
to the throne who would drive out the Christian priests, 
destroy the churches, and restore the heathen worship. 
But the missionaries persevered, and in the end the 
Christian faith conquered. 




AN EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 143 

At one time the King of Northumberland called 
his leading men together to discuss the question 
of accepting Christianity. One of the 

, ... Northum- 

tnegns gave nis opmion m these words: beriand 

" The life of man in this world, O King, may 
be likened to what happens when you are sitting at supper 
with your thegns, in winter time. A fire is blazing on 
the hearth, and the hall is warm; but outside the rain and 
the snow are falling, and the wind is howling. A sparrow 
comes and flies through the hall; it enters by one door, 
and goes out by another. While it is within the hall, it 
feels not the howling blast; but when the short space of 
rest is over, it flies out into the storm again, and passes 
away from our sight. Even so it is with the brief life of 
man. It appears for a little while; but what precedes 
it, or what comes after it, we know not at all. Where- 
fore, if this new teaching can tell us anything of this, let 
us harken and follow it." 

Then the missionary who had come to them, one of 
Augustine's followers, was allowed to speak. When he 
was through, the high priest of the pagan religion led 
the way in destroying the old temples and idols, saying: 
*' The more diligently I sought after truth in that worship, 
the less I found it." 

Most of these early missionaries, like Augustine and his 
companions, were monks. They not only taught the 
people the truths of the Christian religion, 
but they taught them higher standards of of the 
living. Their monasteries became models of 
agriculture for all the country. They established schools 
in the monasteries, and some of the English learned 
to read and write. All their books were in Latin, 
for that was the language used by the Church in its 
services. The result was that few persons could read 



144 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

them. It was a great thing, nevertheless, that there 
should be at least some men in every village who knew 
the language and something of the literature of ancient 
Rome. It meant that the English as a people had 
ceased to be barbarians, and had begun to be civilized, 
like the Romans who preceded them. 

At first the seven kingdoms of the English were often 
at war with one another. Then gradually the stronger 
kingdoms began to gain power over the England 
weaker ones. Finally, at the beginning "nderone 
of the ninth century, the King of Wessex was *"^ 
able to bring all the other kingdoms under his rule, 
and establish a single kingdom for all England. But 
perhaps this union would not have proved permanent, 
had it not been for the fact that the English were soon 
exposed to the dangers of invasion from enemies as rude 
and as warlike as they themselves had been when they 
first came to the island, nearly four hundred years 
before. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Read an account of the early Britons, and their conquest by 

the Romans. (Harding, Story of England, chs. ii, ill.) 

2. How did the English conquest of Britain differ from the 

Roman? 

3. Read some stories of King Arthur and his Round Table. 

(Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry.) 

4. Read the story of Beowulf. (Child, Beowulf.) 

5. Find out what you can about the English monk, Bede. 

(Harding, Story of England, p. 37.) 



XXI 
KING ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 

Points to be Noted 

Where the Northmen (or Danes) came from; founding of Nor- 
mandy; their voyages to the West; discovery of Vinland; 
what Leif Ericsson had really discovered. 

Danish attacks upon England; date; by whom their conquests 
were stopped. 

Youth of Alfred; dates of his reign; his victory over the 
Danes; the treaty of peace; results. 

What Alfred did for England. 

The new-comers who invaded England were the 
Northmen, — or the "Danes" as the English called them. 
They were inhabitants of the northern lands ^ ^ 

•^ . Deeds 

which now form the kingdoms of Denmark, of the 

^ Danes 

Norway, and Sweden. They were Low- 
Germans, like the English; and like the ancestors of 
the English they were great pirates and sea-rovers. 
In the eighth and ninth centuries they began to swarm 
forth from their northern homes and overrun all western 
Europe. In France, after repeated attacks throughout 
the ninth century, they at last settled down in a large 
district about the mouth of the River Seine, which was 
given them by the French King. There they became 
known as the "Normans," and the name Normandy 
is still given to that district. 

Nor did they stop with Europe. For us, what they 
did outside of Europe is much more important. If you 
will look on a globe, you will see that the _. 

" ... -r Discoveries 

great island of Iceland, which lies in the North m the 

Atlantic Ocean, is only about seven hundred 

miles west of Norway, and that Greenland lies only 



146 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



about three hundred miles beyond that. Both of these 
lands were discovered by the Northmen "vikings," 
or sea-rovers; and in both they made settlements. Then 
came what for us is the most interesting discovery of all. 
In the year 1000, one of these Greenland settlers, 
named Leif Ericsson, was returning from a visit to 
Leif Norway. The viking ships were really only 

discovers large boats, and this one was so tossed about 
(1000 A.D.) by storms that it was driven some hundreds 
of miles west and south of Greenland. There Leif 




REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP FOUND IN SWEDEN 



found a new land, to which he gave the name Vinland, 
because of the wild grapes or berries which he found 
in it. The report which he brought to Greenland of 
this new land seemed so favorable that some of the 
Northmen went there and formed a settlement. But 
fierce battles occurred with the natives, and soon the 
settlers returned to Greenland; and after a while, except 
for the accounts preserved in the "sagas," or stories 



ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 147 

of the time, all knowledge of Vinland was lost. There 
can be no doubt, however, that what Leif Ericsson had 
discovered was some part of the continent of North 
America, and that these viking Northmen were really 
the first discoverers and settlers of the New World. 

In the story which you are now reading, however, 
we are most concerned with what the Northmen, or 
"Danes," did in England. They first began ^, _ 

' & J & The Danes 

to plunder the coasts of that land nearly a attack 
hundred years before they discovered Iceland, 
and more than two hundred years before they found 
Vinland. In the beginning their attacks on England 
were like those which the English themselves had made 
when they first began to come to that land. Then, like 
the English again, they began to come in armies, in 
order to make conquests and set up kingdoms of their 
own. The Danes were still heathen, as the English 
had been when they first came; so they destroyed and 
plundered the monasteries and churches, and slew or 
drove out the priests and monks. In this way, little by 
little, the Danes overran the greater part of England, 
until all had been taken except Wessex itself. 

Here they were met by the young King, Alfred — 
"the wisest, best, and greatest King that ever reigned in 
England," — and their advance was checked Youth of 
and their conquests stopped. When he was ^^^^^ 
very young, Alfred had accompanied his father to Rome, 
and spent a year or two there. At home, his mother 
trained her children carefully, and encouraged them to 
study. One day she said to them: 

"Do you see this little book, with its clear black 
writing, and the beautiful letter at the beginning, painted 
in red, blue, and gold.^ It shall belong to the one who 
first learns its songs." 



148 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

''Mother, " said Alfred, "will you really give that 
beautiful book to me if I learn it first? " 

"Yes," was the reply, "I really will/' 

x\lfred took the book to his teacher, and soon learned 
to repeat the verses; and thus he earned the coveted 
prize. This story shows us his quickness of mind, and 
his interest in learning, which made him noted in after 
years. 

When Alfred grew to manhood, he found stern work 
to do, for the Danes were advancing into Wessex. His 
older brother Ethelred was King of Wessex, and Alfred 
worked loyally to help him. A historian of that time 
writes of a certain year that "nine general battles were 
fought this year south of the River Thames; besides 
which Alfred, the King's brother, and single rulers of 
shires and king's thegns, oftentimes made attacks on 
the Danes which are not counted." 

In one of these battles, Ethelred was wounded so 

badly that he died, and Alfred became King in his 

, ^, place. Alfred ruled for thirty years, from 

Alfred be- 
comes King 871 to 901. At first his attention was given 

chiefly to the Danes. Again and again they 

made peace, and soon broke it. The Danish army 

spent the winter in fortified camps in the land; but the 

English, when the summer's fighting was done, scattered 

to their homes, to care for their families and prepare 

their crops. 

During one such winter, Alfred sought refuge in a 

small fortified island called Athelney, amid the swamps 

„ , .. of Wessex. Afterwards the people told stories 

He hides . . . 

from the of how, while Wandering alone in these regions, 

Danes . ^ , i 

he was sheltered in a herdsman's hut, and 
was scolded by the herdsman's wife for allowing some 
coarse cakes to burn, which she had told him to watch. 



ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 149 

An old song represents the woman as saying to the King, 
whom she did not know: 

"Can't you mind the cakes man ? 
And don't you see them burn ? 
I'm bound you'll eat them fast enough. 
As soon as 'tis the turn." 

Another story tells how he went into the Danish 
camp, in disguise as a minstrel or wandering singer, in 
order to get news of their plans; and how the Danes 
were so pleased with his singing that he had difficulty 
in getting away again. 

When the hardships of that winter were over, Alfred 
gathered his army together and attacked the Danes. He 
defeated them badly, and drove them into ^^.^ 
their fortified camp. There he besieged J*^^**J7g^^y 
them for fourteen days; and as they were 
now separated from their ships, and could get no sup- 
plies, they agreed to make peace. By a revision of this 
treaty, a few years later, the Danes were to have all the 
country of England north and west of the Thames River 
and the old Roman road, called Watling Street, which 
ran from London to Chester. Only the country south 
of that line, including London, remained to the English 
under Alfred's rule. 

The country which the Danes ruled was known as the 
"Danelaw." There they settled down and became 
tillers of the soil, just as the English had done The "Dane- 
four centuries earlier. Before many genera- to^he^^^^" 
tions had passed, they all became Christians 
and blended with their English neighbors. But to this 
day northern England shows some features which re- 
mind us that once it was ruled by these rude, freedom- 
loving Danes. For example, we find there several 



150 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



hundred villages and towns with names which end in 
the syllable "-by," (as in "Derby"). This was the 
Danish word for "town," and corresponds to the old 
English "-ton" or "-ham," which we find so frequently 
on the map of southern England. 





AN ENGLISH KING 
Tenth century 



WOMAN'S COSTUME 

Tenth century 



After the treaty with the Danes, Wessex for some time 
enjoyed peace, and Alfred had opportunity to repair 
Alfred ^^^ damages done by war. Among other 

rebuilds things, he fortified and partly rebuilt the city 
of London. For some time it had been in the 
hands of the Danes, but it was now restored to the 
English. London was located at the lowest point on 
the Thames at which a bridge could be built, or at 
which merchants could find solid ground for landing 
goods from their ships. It was already an important 
place in Roman days, and it now became the chief city 



ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 



151 



of England. Long afterward, when ocean commerce 
developed, its splendid harbor helped to make it the 
greatest city in the world. But for several centuries 
after Alfred, its citizens were as much interested in 
agriculture as in carrying on their small trades, and 
commerce on a large scale was unknown. 

Alfred saw that, if the English were to resist invaders 
successfully, they must put their trust in the sea. 
Accordingly, he had a large number 
of ships built, after his own pattern, 
making them twice as large as those 
of the Danes. These proved very 
useful when the Danes renewed their 
attacks. He also improved the army. 





Front vie\ 



Side view 
GOLD JEWEL OF ALFRED 

Found at Athelney 

and made some changes in the gov- 
ernment. To make it easier to find 
out what the law was, he collected 
and revised the old laws of England. 
But he did this work modestly, and 
without reckless change. "I, Alfred," he wrote, 
''gathered these laws together, and commanded many 
of them to be written which our forefathers His 
held, those which seemed to me good. And ^^^"^^^^^^ 
many of those which seemed to me not good, I 
rejected, and in other wise commanded them to be 
held. For I durst not venture to set down in writing 
much of my own, for it was unknown to me what 
of it would please those who should come after us. " 



152 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Alfred also encouraged workmen of all sorts. He 
brought many skilled men to England from foreign 
T, .^ . countries; and he himself could show his gold 

He aids in- ^ " ^ 

dustryand workcrs, and other artisans, how to do their 

learning 

work. He invented a method of counting 
the hours, by means of candles which were made so 
that six of them would burn just twenty-four hours. 
He also invented a lantern, with transparent sides made 
of horn (for glass was scarce), to keep drafts away from 
the candle and make it burn better. His mind was 
constantly at work, seeking to better the condition of 
his country. 

But Alfred thought none of these 
things could help his people much 
unless they improved in mind and 
spirit. He lamented their growing 
ignorance, through the destruction of 
the monasteries, with their schools 
and libraries. "Formerly," said he, 
"foreigners came to this land in search horn lantern 
of wisdom and instruction; but we 
should now have to get teachers from abroad, if we 
would have them." Accordingly he invited many 
learned men to come to his kingdom to help instruct 
his people. 

Alfred thought that the greatest need of all was books 
which his people could read — books in English, and not 
Latin. 

"I wondered extremely," he said, "that the good and 
wise men who were formerly all over England, and had 
perfectly learned all the books, did not wish to translate 
them into their own tongue. " 

He set himself to put into English some of the best 
books. First came a history of the world, and to this he 




ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 



153 



added his own account of two voyages into the northern 
seas, made by Danes whom he had invited to England. 
Then came a history of England by a famous 
monk, named Bede; a book of 
instruction by Pope Gregory the Great; finally 
a book on philosophy, in which Alfred gave many 
his own most serious thoughts. All these works are 
still preserved; but our language has changed so much 



He trans- 
religious lates books 
* into English 



of 




HOUSE OF AN ENGLISH NOBLE (Eleventh Century) 
From an old manuscript. The lord and his lady are giving alms to the poor 



since Alfred's day that they are now like books in a 
foreign tongue. 

Since Alfred's death, all English speaking people have 
cherished his memory, and we now call him "Alfred the 
Great." He was a brave warrior, a wise lawmaker, a 
patient tea^cher, and a watchful guardian of his people. 
Above all, he was a true and pure man, loving his family 
and training his children with great care. The secret of 
his success is told in his own words: 



154 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

"To sum up all," he said, "it has ever been my desire 
to live worthily while I was alive, and after my death to 
leave to those that should come after me my memory in 
good works. " 

Alfred's work was indeed good, for he saved England 
from being completely conquered by the Danes. Be- 
what he cause he kept his courage at the trying time, 
EJfg/and ^^^ ^^^ kingdom was preserved, and the 
Danes were settled beyond the Thames, there 
to gradually become Enghshmen. Because he was 
wise and patient, he made his kingdom strong, so that 
his descendants were able, httle by little, to regain all 
that the Danes had taken, and to become again, in later 
years, kings of all England. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Describe the life of the "vikings," and tell the great things 

which they did. 

2. Bead "The Saga of the Land of Grapes" (Price, Wandering 

Heroes, p. 151). 

3. AVhy did the discovery of iVmerica by the Northmen have 

no important results? 

4. Tell some of the stories about Alfred. 

5. Find out what you can about the early history of London. 

6. Write a brief account, in your own words, of Alfred's life 

and character. 

7. Make a list of the things that Alfred did for England. 

8. Was his treaty with the Danes a wise one? Give reasons. 



XXII 
THE NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 

Points to be Noted 

New troubles from the Danes; rule of Canute; Edward the 

Confessor. 
Character of the Normans; Duke William's claim to the English 

throne; his invasion of England; battle of Hastings; date; 

importance of the Norman Conquest, 
The feudal sj^stem established in England; meaning of fief, 

vassal, villain, homage, fealty; what the lord owed to the 

vassal; what the vassal owed to the lord. 
How William prevented his lords from becoming too powerful; 

how the Norman Conouest benefited England. 



Alfred's descendants soon succeeded in reconquering 
the Danelaw, but this was far from being the end of 
England's troubles with the Northmen. „, , 

^ Weakness 

About eighty years after the death of Alfred, of 
while a weak King was on the throne, new 
swarms of Danes began to come into England; and after 
a number of years of struggling, the Danish King Canute 
added England to his kingdoms of Denmark and Nor- 
way. He was a just and Christian king, and ruled 
England as though he had been an Englishman himself. 
Soon after his death, the old English line of kings was 
restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. Un- 
fortunately, he was a weak ruler while he lived, and he 
died without a son to succeed him. In these circum- 
stances, the ruler of those Northmen who had settled 
across the Channel in France, more than a hundred 
years before, prepared in his turn to seize the English 
throne. 



156 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



These Northmen who were settled in France we 
call "Normans," to distinguish them from those who 
Strength Came direct from the Scandinavian lands. 
NoJmans ^incc Settling in France they had progressed 
very rapidly. They had laid aside their old 
heathen religion and become Christians; and they had 
also laid aside their old speech and native customs. In 
less than a hundred years they had become as good 
Frenchmen, in speech and everything else, as could be 
found in that kingdom. 
About the only thing 
which distinguished 
the Normans from the 
other French was their 
greater energy, their 
skill in building and in 
government, and their 
fondness for the sea 
and for adventure. 

Their ruler, or duke, 
when King Edward 
The died, was 

invade named Will- WILLIAM I., THE CONQUEROR 

England • i 

lam, and 
because of the great deeds which he performed we call 
him William the Conqueror. From an early age he had 
shown remarkable warlike power and ability to rule. 
He claimed the English throne chiefly on the ground 
that King Edward had promised it to him ; and, in spite 
of the fact that the English had now set up an English 
nobleman named Harold in place of Edward, Duke 
William gathered together his forces, and in the year 
1066 invaded England. 

On leaping from his ship, William stumbled and fell 




NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 157 

flat upon his face. His followers cried out at this as a 
bad omen, but William's presence of mind prevented 
any injurious effect. "By the splendor of God," he 
cried, grasping a handful of earth, "I hold England in 
my hands!" 




WILLIAM OF NORMANDY LANDING IN ENGLAND 



Harold meanwhile had gathered his forces and marched 
to meet William, whom he found near the town of Hast- 
ings. There the decisive battle took place. „ , , 

^ ^ . ^ . Battle of 

Harold's men were on foot, and carried light fastings 
javelins for hurling, and swords or battleaxes 
for striking. They were drawn up so that their shields 
overlapped one another, making a solid wall of defense. 
William had two kinds of warriors — crossbowmen on 
foot, who were placed at the front; and, behind these, 
the knights on horseback, wearing iron caps and rude 
coats of mail, and carrying swords and strong lances. 

One of the Norman knights asked that he might 
strike the first blow. When this was granted, he rode 
forward, tossing his sword in the air and catching it. 



158 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



and singing gaily an old song about the deeds of a great 
warrior named Roland. Two Englishmen fell by his 
hand before he himself was slain. 

Then the battle began in earnest, and raged all day. 
In spite of their heavy horsemen, the Normans were 
unable to break the English line. Three horses were 
killed under William, but he received no injury. Once 
the cry went forth, "The Duke is down!" and the 
Normans began to give way. But William tore off his 

D>R-aMNTERF6C 

TVS-.EST 




DEATH OF HAROLD 

Harold is the second figure from the left. The inscription fin Latin) reads: "Har- 
old the King is slain." To his right is the banner of Wessex. Note that the 
armor consisted of discs of metal fastened to leather cloth. This picture is taken 
from a great piece of tapestry embroidered by William's Queen to illustrate the 
Conquest of England. 

helmet, that they might better see his face, and cried: 
"I live, and by God's help shall have the victory!" 

At length, a portion of the Norman troops turned to 
flee, and some of the English, disobeying Harold's 
orders, left their line to go in pursuit. These English 
were then easily cut off and destroyed. William took 
a hint from this, and ordered a pretended flight of all 
the Normans. Large numbers of the English followed, 
and the Normans turned and cut them down. 



NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 159 

But Harold and his two brothers, together with the 
best troops, still stood firm, and swung their battleaxes 
beneath the Golden Dragon banner of Wessex. Death of 
At last an arrow, shot into the air by William's "^^«*** 
order, struck Harold in the eye, and he fell. The Eng- 
lish then fled — all except a few, who fought on until 
they were destroyed. 

Thus William and his Normans conquered England. 
No further resistance was possible. Marching slowly 
toward London, he was there acknowledged 

T^- 1 r^^ ' Tx 1 William 

Jling; and, on Christmas Day, he put on becomes 
the English crown. 

The victory of the Normans was a turning point in 
EngHsh history. Britons, Romans, English, Danes, 
and Normans, — all made their conquests and left their 
mark on the life of the island. This, however, is the last 
of the armed invasions. Never afterward does a 
foreign foe take possession of the soil of England. 

William set up a system of landholding in England 
which, in the period following the invasions of the Ger- 
mans, had gradually grown up everywhere on 
the Continent. This was called the feudal feudal 
system. Under it, all the land belonged in 
theory to the King; but most of it was occupied by 
great lords, who held it on condition that they assist 
the King in war. Each lord was bound to furnish a 
certain number of armed and mounted warriors, in 
proportion to the size of his estate. To get men with 
whom to fulfill this obligation, these "tenants-in-chief," 
as they were called, granted portions of their lands to 
"sub-tenants," on similar conditions. These in turn 
sublet to others; and so it went on, down to the simple 
peasants (called "villains") who actually tilled the soil. 
The name given to an estate which was held on condition 



160 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



of military service was "benefice" or "fief." The 
fief holder became the "vassal" or personal d'ependent 
of his lord. When he was put in possession of his land, 
the "vassal" knelt unarmed before his lord, placed 
both hands in his, and swore to be "his man" {homo, in 




A NORMAN CASTLE IN ENGLAND 

Latin), and to serve him as a vassal ought to serve his 
lord. This was called "doing homage." Then the 
vassal arose, and the lord gave him the kiss of peace, 
and the vassal swore "fealty," — that is, fidelity, — to 
him. Fiefs were generally hereditary, the son of a 
deceased vassal being permitted to succeed to his father's 



NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 161 

estates, on condition that he paid a sum of money, did 
homage, and swore fealty to the lord of the fief. 

The lords owed their vassals protection, while the 
vassals owed service to their lords. This service was 
partly military service, as mounted knights, for forty 
days each year. The lord could also call upon his 
vassals to come to his castle, at certain times, and assist 
him with their counsel and advice. In addition, he 
might call upon them to serve him on certain occasions 
by giving him money — which they in turn collected from 
their villains. These payments were called "aids," 
and could be collected on three occasions, — when the 
lord's eldest son was made a knight, when his eldest 
daughter was married, and to ransom the lord himself, 
if he should be taken captive. 

On the Continent, the feudal system weakened the 
power of the King, because it created a tie between the 
lords and their tenants which was stronger 

1 1 • 1 • 1 1 11 IT. William's 

than the tie which bound them to the King, checks on 
Thus, if a great lord in France rebelled, his 
tenants supported him rather than the King, and the 
whole land was filled with confusion. In England, 
William took pains to prevent his lords from becoming 
too powerful. The estates of the great landholders were 
scattered in different parts of the country, so that no 
man might be able to collect a great army in one place. 
He also kept up the old hundred and shire courts, and 
refused to allow the lords as much independence as they 
enjoyed on the Continent. Above all, he required 
every landholder to take an oath of allegiance to sup- 
port the King, before and above his immediate lord. 
With these changes, William made the feudal system a 
means by which he could control not only the conquered 
English, but his Norman barons as well. 



162 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

In the course of several centuries the Normans lost 
their French speech and ways, and became swallowed 
What the up in the mass of the English people. The 
dkTTo"^ vigor of the Normans, together with their skill 
Eng an -^^ ^^^ ^^^ -^ government, were added to the 

good qualities of the English race. The Old English 
had known how to build up communities in which the 
people governed themselves through their township, 
hundred, and shire meetings. They had active local 
self-government; but they had not known how to build 
up a strong central government, which could keep the 
whole country united, put down lawlessness and dis- 
order, and keep out foreign invaders. It was the work 
of the Norman kings to do this. iVnd whenever we 
think of the great things which England has done in 
the world — of the colonies which it founded and still 
rules, and of the lessons which it has given the world in 
combining strong governments with freedom and per- 
sonal liberty, — we must remember that this is based 
in part upon the work of William the Conqueror. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Imagine .yourself one of Harold's soldiers, and describe tlie 

Norman Conquest, 

2. Which had the better claim to the English throne, William 

or Harold? Why? 

3. Eead the account of the battle of Hastings in Lord Lytton's 

novel, Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings (Book xii, 
chs. vii and viii). 

4. Find out what other great things the Normans accomplished. 

5. Study the picture at the front of this book, and describe 

the ceremony of homage and fealty. 



XXIII 
KING JOHN AND THE GREAT CHARTER 

Points to be Noted 

John's character and its results; how Normandy was lost. 
Cause of John's quarrel with the Pope; the interdict; how John 

made peace with the Pope. 
Complaints of the barons; advice of Stephen Langton; what 

the barons demanded; when and where the Great Charter 

was granted; how John felt about it. 
The renewal of the quarrel; John's death. 
What the Charter secures for the people; why it is so highly 

prized. 

King John was the sixth King of England who fol- 
lowed William the Conqueror. He proved to be one 
of the worst rulers that England ever had, — ^, 

^ Character 

cruel, faithless, lazy, and reckless of every- ?/ 
thing save his own pleasure. Yet his very 
wickedness and tyranny, by spurring all classes to 
resistance, helped much to bring about political liberty 
and to make such tyranny impossible for the future. 

The Norman kings of England continued to be dukes 
of Normandy also, and since the days of the Conqueror 
they had gained much additional territory in , , . 

•^ . , . . John loses 

France. John s misgovernment got him into his French 
a quarrel with the King of France over this 
territory; and in the course of the struggle which fol- 
lowed, John's nephew Arthur, who had sided with the 
French King, was captured and imprisoned by John. 
Soon Arthur disappeared, and there can be no doubt 
that John had him secretly put to death. After this, 
John steadily lost ground, so that within a few months 

163 



164 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

ill I Normandy and a great part of his other French 
possessions had fallen into the hands of the French King. 

Then followed a quarrel with the Pope over the 
election of a new archbishop of Canterbury. John 
His uarrei ^^^^^^ed to rcccive Stephen Langton, whom 
j:»ththe the Pope appointed to that office, and seized 
the lands and revenues of the archbishopric. 
To punish the King, the Pope placed an "interdict" 
upon the whole kingdom, — that is, he forbade all church 
services except the baptism of infants and the "last 
unction" or anointing of the dying. The church doors 
remained closed; the bells were silent; even the dead 
were buried without ceremony, in unhallowed ground. 
After this had lasted for several years, John was forced 
to make peace with the Pope. Stephen Langton was 
permitted to take up his duties as archbishop, and John 
promised to restore the lands which he had taken from 
the Church. In addition, he surrendered his kingdom 
to the Pope and received it again as a fief, agreeing to 
pay a yearly tribute. Thus, this struggle ended by the 
King of England becoming the Pope's vassal, and this 
relationship lasted for more than a hundred years. 

At the time when John settled his quarrel with the Pope, 
he was in the midst of a third great struggle, — this time 
with his own barons, who wished a remedy for the evils of 
his rule. 

King John was constantly making new demands upon 
both the nobles and the people. He had called upon 
He quarrels ^^^^ ^^^' scrviccs which they did not think 
with his they ought to render, and he had levied taxes 

Uarons , 

unknown in earlier times. Tn some cases he 
cast men into prison without law, and in others he 
unjustly seized their lands and goods. The result was 
that, at length, all classes were ready to rebel. 



THE GREAT CHARTER 165 

The barons found a shrewd adviser in Stephen Lang- 
ton, the new archbishop. He reminded them of the 
charter of an earlier king, who had promised reforms of 
government to the nation, and told the barons to demand 
a similar charter from King John. 




JOHN GRANTING THE CHARTER 

While John was waging war on the Continent, seeking 
vainly to recover his lost territories, the leading barons 
secretly met together, under pretext of a T^i^gg^^^^g 
pilgrimage, and swore to compel the King to ^^^^^^ 
restore the liberties of the realm, and to con- 
firm them by a charter. Their demands were presented 



166 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



to John upon his return. But the King cried out in 
wrath: "Why do they not ask for my kingdom? I will 
never grant such liberties as will make me a slave." 

In various ways, John sought to break up the forces 
that confronted him; but all in vain. "The army of 
God and of Holy Church," as the rebels called them- 
selves, marched upon London, and the citizens joyously 
opened the city gates to them. 







Uj^u^l 




PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER 

Written in Latin, with abbreviations. The first line, if written out, would be: 
Johannes, Dei Gratia Rex Angliae, Dominus Hyberniae," etc.; 
which, translated, is: "John, by the grace of God 
King of England, Lord of Ireland," etc. 

On June 15, in the year 1215, John met the represen- 
tatives of the barons "in the meadow which is called 
The Great Ruunymedc, between Windsor and Staines," 
granted ou the Rivcr Thames. Here he was forced to 

^^^^^^ give his consent to the Great Charter,— called 

Magna Carta in Latin, the language in which it was 
written. It is said that when King John granted the 
Charter he wore a smiling countenance, and spoke 
pleasantly to the lords about him; but that when he 
reached his own chamber he threw himself down in a 
mad rage upon the ground, gnashing his teeth and biting 
the rushes with which it was strewn. 



THE GREAT CHARTER 167 

John had no intention of keeping his promises, and 
war soon began again. The King had the support of 
hired troops, chiefly from France; and the 
Pope, who was now his overlord, gave him renews the 
such help as he could. The barons, for their 
part, called the son of the King of France to their aid, and 
offered him the English crown. 

For a time it seemed as if John might overcome his 
enemies and again set up his will as law. But, in cross- 
ing an arm of the sea, his army was surprised by the tide, 
and his baggage, with the royal treasure, was washed 
away. A fever then seized John, and he died in a few 
days. Men said that his illness was caused by eating 
heartily of unripe peaches. With John dead, the barons 
withdrew their support from the French prince, and he 
soon returned to France. The barons had fought only 
against the tyranny of John, and they would not support 
a foreign prince against John's young son. 

Since John's day the Great Charter has repeatedly 
been confirmed, and now stands as part of the English 
Constitution. Its principles are part of the law of every 
English-speaking nation, and hence the Great Charter 
has almost as much interest for us as for the people 
of England itself. Among many important provisions, 
we find the following: 

"No free man shall be taken, or imprisoned, or dis- 
possessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way 
destroyed, nor will we go upon him, nor will 

1 1 ' 1 1 T « 1 . 1 Provisions 

we send upon him, except by the lawful ludg- of the Great 

. PI- ,,11 <. 1 1 1 ,, Charter 

ment ot his peers, and by the law of the land. 

In this passage the King admitted that he had no 
right to imprison or punish any man, except according 
to law. 

In another famous passage John promised that he 



168 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

would collect no money as King unless it was granted 
to him by the consent of his barons in a Great Council 
assembled for that purpose. In this passage was laid 
the foundation of the principle that a government ought 
not to tax its subjects without their consent, and that 
"taxation without consent is tyranny." 

It is because of such provisions as these that the 
Great Charter is so highly prized by all English-speaking 

peoples. The principles which it lays down 
importance havc not always been observed, and often the 

people have been obliged to force reluctant 
kings to observe them. But ever since John granted the 
Charter it has been a rallying point in the struggle for 
liberty, and it has rightly been regarded as a great 
defense of the rights of the people against the tyranny of 
their rulers. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. In their quarrel, which was in the right, John or the Pope? 

2. Why did the interdict force John to make peace with the 

Pope? 

3. What is a charter? 

4. Explain what is meant by "the lawful judgment of his 

peers." 

5. When did the English colonists in America make use of the 

principle that "taxation without consent is tyranny"? 



XXIV 
THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 

Points to be Noted 

The name of the central Assembly in Anglo-Saxon days; under 

the Normans; how these Assemblies differed from Parliament. 
When and in what part of the government representatives first 

arose; how the Normans increased their nse; why they were 

added to the Great Council. 
The two sorts of representatives in Parliament; when each was 

first introduced; the Model Parliament. 
Separation of Parliament into two Houses; of what each was 

composed; the Commons given equal powers in lawmaking 

with the Lords; powers of Parliament not so great as they 

later became. 

Perhaps the greatest thing which England has given 
to the world is the system of Parliaments, or legislative 
assemblies (including our Congress and State legisla- 
tures), by which the greater part of the world is now 
governed. 

There never has been a period, since England has been 
united into a single kingdom, when some sort of council 
or assembly was not called, from time to time, The 
to aid the King in governing. In the days fn aIIio^ 
of the Angles and Saxons, this body was ^axon times 
called the Witenagemot, or assembly of the wise men, 
and it was made up of the bishops, abbots, king's thegns, 
and chief officers of the kingdom. It was this body 
which aided Alfred in making his laws, and which elected 
Harold — and after him William — to be King of England. 

After the Norman Conquest, the kings from time to 
time called about them, to aid them with counsel and 
advice, all the lords who held land directly of them by 



170 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

feudal tenure. Except for the fact that the feudal lords 

were at first mainly Normans, this body did not differ 

very much from the one which preceded it; 

man Great for the great officers of the land were the 

Council . ^ ^ 

King's vassals, and the bishops and abbots 
also held their lands by feudal tenure from the King. 
It was this Great Council of the barons which settled who 
should have the crown when there was a dispute; it was 
also this body which helped the kings carry on the work 
of government. But the Great Council only aided and 
advised the King; it did not control him. 

What is it that makes the difference between these 
earlier assemblies and the later one which we call Par- 
liament.^ 

First, Parliament is a "representative" body — that is, 
it is composed in part of persons who do not sit in right 
How these of their offices or lands, but who are elected 
from^ to represent the people. Second, it is divided 

Parliament j^^^^ ^^^ "houscs"— a Housc of Lords, and a 
House of Commons. And third, it has more power than 
the older assemblies had. 

The addition of representatives, along with the 
great churchmen and barons, was the first step in trans- 
Represen- forming the old Great Council into the Parlia- 
Sed in local mcut. The practice of having representatives 
to act in the name of the community, was first 
used in local government. In the Anglo-Saxon time, 
each township sent four representatives to take part in 
the "hundred" and "shire" meetings. When the 
Normans came, they began the practice of using com- 
mittees of representatives, in the different districts of 
the country, for many purposes. Sometimes they 
ordered such committees to declare what the old English 
law was, in order to guide their judges in deciding cases. 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 171 

Sometimes such committees were used to make a list 
of all the property in their districts, with the value of it 
and the names of the owners. By and by committees 
of sworn representatives were used to find out the facts 
in a given case at law, and declare their decision or 
verdict. Such a committee was called a *'jury, " and 
the introduction of jury trial marked a great step in 
advance over the older forms of trial. But the impor- 
tant thing to note here is that the decision which each 
jury gave was regarded as the decision of the community. 
In other words, the jury *' represented" the community 
for that purpose, and its voice was taken as the voice of 
the community as a whole. 

Thus, in many ways, the people became used to the 
idea of having representatives chosen to help carry on 
the local governments, in the name of the people of the 
community. 

Why, we may now ask, were representatives added to 
the Great Council.^ 

The reason is that a time came when the kings needed 
more money to carry on the work of government; and 
that this additional money must come, not why they 
only from the nobles, who already had seats ^^thecieat 
in the Great Council, but also from the ^**"***^** 
wealthy townsmen and country gentlemen. It seemed 
best, therefore to ask the towns and the counties to send 
representatives to meet with the Great Council, and 
there give the consent of their communities to the new 
taxes. This would make it easier to collect the money, 
for then there would be less grumbling about it; it would 
also be more in keeping with that passage of the Great 
Charter in which the King promised not to collect money 
from his subjects without their consent. Of course 
it would have been possible for the King's officers to go 



172 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



about the country asking the consent of each com- 
munity in turn to the grant; and indeed this was done at 
times. But on the whole it was felt that it would be 
much quicker and more satisfactory to bring together 
at one place the representatives of all the communities, 
and there secure their consent. 

The representatives who were thus called together 
were of two sorts — first, the "knights of the shire," who 
represented the lesser nobles and country gentlemen; 
and, second, the "borough representatives," who came 
from the cities and towns 
(boroughs) and repre- 
sented the trading classes. 

The knights of the shire 
were the first to be added 
ft^ V ..X,. to the assem- 

(1) Knights 

^f/jhe shire bly. In 1213, 
for the first 
time, the King called 
them to meet with the 
Great Council, "to speak 
with us concerning the 
business of our kingdom." 
From time to time after 
that, "knights of the shire" were summoned to the 
assemblies, until the practice became permanent. They 
were elected by the landholders, in the county assem- 
blies, and every county sent two, no matter what its size. 
The addition of the town, or borough, representatives 
came first in 1265, when the barons in England, under 
their leader, Simon of Montfort, were again 
in rebeUion against the misgovernment of the representl- 
King. After the rebellion was put down, the ^'"^^^ ^^^*^^ 
King continued the practice of asking representatives 




SEAL OF EDWARD 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 173 



« o 
S5 




174 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

of the boroughs, from time to time, to come to the central 
assembly. Finally, in 1295, King Edward I. called a 
meeting which established it as a rule that, in a Parlia- 
ment, there ought to be representatives both of the 
counties and of the towns. This was called the "Model 
Parliament, " because it became a model for succeeding 
ones. Each town which sent representatives at all, in 
those days, elected two. 

At first, the representatives of the counties and of the 
boroughs sat in the same body with the barons and great 
Separation churchmeu. By the year 1340, however, 
the^House Parliament had separated into two "houses." 
of Lords rpi^^ upper house was the House of Lords, and 
included the great barons (who bore the titles of duke, 
marquis, earl, viscount, and baron), and also the arch- 
bishops and bishops, and the abbots or heads of monas- 
teries. 

The lower house was the House of Commons. In 
course of time it became the more important part of 

^ ^^^ , Parliament. This was because it especially 

and (2) the i- J 

House of was called upon to vote the taxes which the 

Commons 

King needed for carrying on the government. 
For a time the towns and counties looked upon repre- 
sentation in Parliament as a burden; but gradually their 
representatives began to hold back the voting of taxes 
until the King and his ministers promised to correct any 
grievances of which they complained. Then it was seen 
that the right of voting taxes was a great and valuable 
power, and the people no longer complained of the 
burden of being represented in Parliament. 

At first, it was not certain whether the House of Com- 
mons would be admitted to a share in the lawmaking 
power, or whether it would be allowed only to vote 
taxes. In his summons to the Model Parliament, 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 



175 




176 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

however, Edward I. laid down the principle that "what 
concerns all should be approved by all." Twenty-seven 
The years later, the rule was definitely stated that 

gi^^"^quai all matters which concerned the kingdom and 
P*^^^'^ the people "shall be estabhshed in Parlia- 

ment, by the King, and by the consent of the Lords and 
the Commons of the realm." This rule gave the House of 
Commons an equal right with the House of Lords in all 
law-making. From this time on the powers of the 
Commons grew, until they are now much greater than 
those of the House of Lords. 

But we must not think of these early Parliaments as 
having the great powers which Parliaments have today. 
„ ,. The King was still much more powerful than 

Parliament . . ^ 

not yet the Parliament, though since the s^ranting of 

supreme ^ ^ ^ ^ ® 

the Great Charter it was recognized that the 
King was below the law, and not above it. In making 
new laws, and in laying new taxes, he needed the consent 
of Parliament ; but in carrying on the general business of 
the government — in making war, and in concluding 
peace — he could act without Parliament. Often he 
consulted Parliament about such matters, but he could 
act as he pleased. The ministers who carried on the 
government were still the King's ministers, and respon- 
sible to him only. It was to be several centuries yet — 
and a great civil war was to be fought, and one King 
beheaded and another deposed — before Parliament was 
recognized as the chief power in the government. 

Nevertheless, before the Middle Ages had come to an 
end, the framework of the legislative assembly, in the 
form in which it was to be carried into all the great 
English colonies, and in which it was later to be taken 
up in all self-governing countries, was practically com- 
plete. 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 177 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Rule three columns on the blackboard, head one Witenage- 

mot, the next Great Council, and the third Parliament, 
and write down the chief facts concerning each body. 

2. Show how the representative principle enables free govern- 

ments in modern times to rule much greater territories 
than was possible for the little republics of Greece, when 
the representative principle was not yet developed. 

3. Find out how a jury trial is conducted today. 

4. Show how the representative principle enabled the people to 

use the rights of self-government which they forced the 
kings to grant. 

5. Find out what you can about the Parliament called by Simon 

de Montfort in 1265. 

6. Do the same for the Model Parliament of 1295. 



XXV 
LIFE IN THE CASTLES 

Points to be Noted 

Place of the castle in the life of the Middle Ages. 

Plan of a Norman castle in the eleventh century; entrance to it; 

the outer court; the inner court; the keep of the castle; 

attacks on castles. 
The castle in time of peace; the great hall; dwellers in the 

castle; training for knighthood; the page; life of the squire; 

amusements of the castle folk; falconry; hunting with 

hounds. 
The conferring of knighthood; feats and feasting. 

We must now try to picture to ourselves the life of 
Europe in the days which preceded the discovery of 
,., , the New World. We will read first about 

Life of 

the Middle Hfe in the castles, where lordly knights and 
gentle ladies dwelt. Then we will see what 
was the manner of life of the peasants who dwelt in the 
villages, and of the merchants and craftsmen who dwelt 
in the cities and towns. Finally, we will visit the mon- 
asteries, and see what was the life of the monks and 
nuns, who gave their lives to the service and praise of 
God. 

If you visit France, Germany, and other European 
countries today, you will find on every hand the ruins of 
great stone castles, rearing their tall towers on the 
hilltops, and commanding the passage of roads and 
rivers. At the present time these are mostly tumbled 
down and overgrown with moss and ivy, and nobody 
cares to live within their dark walls. 

In the Middle Ages it was not so. Then the castles 
were the safest places in which to live; so, in spite of 

178 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 179 



A CASTLE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 



180 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

their cold and gloom, they became the centers of the life 
of the time. It was from the castles that the feudal 
Its barons ruled their lands. It was there that 

cast es ^YiQ peasants found refuge from the attacks 

of Northmen and other enemies. In them chivalry was 
born and flourished; at their gates tournaments, jousts, 
and other knightly festivals took place; and in their halls 
the wandering singers, who were building up a new 
literature, found the readiest welcome and the most 
eager and appreciative listeners. 

Let us fancy ourselves back in the eleventh or twelfth 
century, and examine a castle. We shall find the country 
very different, we may be sure, from what it is today. 
Great forests stand where now there are flourishing 
towns; and everything has a wilder, more unsettled look, 

Here is a castle in France that will suit our purpose, 
It was built by one of the vassals of William the Con- 
queror,' and has been the scene of many sieges 
Norman and battles. See how everything is arranged 
so as to make easy its defense. It is built on 
the top of a steep hill, and around its walls is dug a deep 
ditch or moat. At the outer edge of the moat we see a 
strong palisade of heavy stakes set in the ground. Just 
inside this is a path, along which sentries march in time of 
war. The gate, too, is doubly and triply guarded. In 
front of it is a drawbridge across the moat — indeed, 
there are two; and the space between is guarded by a 
protecting wall. In later days these drawbridges were 
made stronger and more complicated, and heavy towers, 
with walls of masonry, were built, the better to protect 
the entrance. 

When we have passed these outer works, we come to 
a heavy wooden door between two tall towers which 
mark the entrance to the walls. We pass through this. 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 181 

and find ourselves within the gateway. But we are 
still far from being in the castle. In the narrow vaulted 
passageway before us, we see suspended a Entrance 
heavy iron grating, called the portcullis, 
which may come rattling down at any moment to bar 
our passage. And beyond this is another door; and 
beyond this another portcullis. The entrance to the 
castle is indeed well guarded; and the porter who keeps 
watch at the gate, and has to open and shut all these 
barriers, is at times a busy man. 

At last we are past the gateway and find ourselves 
in an open courtyard. The thick walls of the. castle 
surround us on all sides, and at their top we ^^^ 
see the battlements and loopholes through ou^ej 
which arrows may be shot at the enemy. 
Here and there the wall is protected by stone towers, 
in which are stairways leading to the battlements above. 
In the first courtyard we find the stables, where the lord 
of the castle keeps his horses. Here, too, is space for 
the shelter of the villagers in time of war; and here, 
perhaps, is the great brick oven in which bread is baked 
to feed the lord and all his followers. 

Going on we come to a wall or palisade, which sep- 
arates the courtyard we are in from one lying beyond it. 
In later times this wall, too, was made much ^^^ 
stronger than we find it here. Passing through J^ner 
a gateway, we come into the second court- 
yard. Here again we find a number of buildings, used 
for different purposes. In one are the storerooms and 
cellars, where provisions are kept to enable the dwellers 
in the castle to stand a siege. Next to this is a building 
shaped like a great jug, with a large chimney at the top, 
and smaller ones in a circle round about. This is the 
kitchen, in which the food is cooked for the lord of the 



182 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

castle and his household. The cooking, we may be sure, 
is usually simple, — most of the meats being roasted on 
spits over open fires, and elaborate dishes, with sauces 
and spices, being yet uncommon. Most castles have, in 
addition, a small church or chapel in this courtyard, 
in which the inhabitants may worship. 

The most important building of all is still to be 
described. There at the end of the courtyard we see 
The keep ^^^ ^^^^ " ^^^P " ^^ ^^^ castlc, which the French 
JasSi called '* donjon, " and in whose basement there 

are '* dungeons" indeed, for traitors -and cap- 
tured enemies. This is the true stronghold of the baron, 
and it is a secure retreat. Think of all the hard fighting 
there must be before the enemy can even reach it. The 
drawbridges must be crossed, the gates must be battered 
down, and the portcullises pried up; the first courtyard 
must be cleared; the dividing wall must be carried; the 
second courtyard also must be cleared of its defenders. 
And when the enemy, bruised and worn, at last arrive 
at the keep, their work is just begun. There the lord 
and his followers will make their last stand, and the fight- 
ing will be fiercer than ever. 

The walls of the keep are of stone, eight to ten feet 
thick; and from the loopholes in its frowning sides peer 
Attacks skilled archers and crossbowmen, ready to let 
Si^stie^ fly their bolts and arrows at all in sight. A 

long, long siege will be necessary, to starve 
out its defenders. If this is not done, movable towers 
must be erected, battering rams placed, stone-hurling 
machines brought up, blazing arrrows shot at the roof 
and windows, and tunnels dug to undermine the walls. 
In this way the castle may be burned, or an entrance at 
last be gained. But even then there will be fierce 
fighting in the narrow passageways, in the dimly- 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 



183 













THE "SAUCY CASTLE" OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 



184 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

lighted halls, and on the winding stairways which lead 
from story to story. It will be long, indeed, before our 
lord's banner is torn from the summit of the tower, and 
his enemy's is placed in its stead! And even when all 
is lost, there still remain hidden stairways in the castle 
walls, underground passages opening into the moat, and 
the gate in the rear, through which the lord and his 
garrison may yet escape to the woods and open fields; 
and so continue the battle another day. 

In later times, stronger and more complicated castles 
were erected, especially after Western lords had begun 
to go on the Crusades, and had seen the great fortresses 
of the Eastern Empire. The picture on the preceding 
page shows such a castle, erected in Normandy by 
Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, and called by 
him the "Saucy Castle" because of its defiance of the 
French King. The picture also shows hurling engines 
set for attack, and a movable tower being brought to 
scale its walls. 

But let us inquire, now, concerning the life of the 
castle in time of peace. Where and how did the lord 
^^ and his household live.^ How were his 

Ine , 

castle in children educated .^^ And with what did 

peace 

they amuse themselves in the long days 
when there was no enemy to attack their walls, and 
no distant expedition in which to engage .^^ 

Sometimes the lord and his family lived in the upper 
stories of the huge donjon, where arms and supplies 
The great wcrc always stored. But this was so gloomy, 

with its thick walls and narrow windows, that 
many lords built more comfortable "halls" in their 
courtyards, and preferred to live in these. Let us look 
in upon such a hall, whether it is in the donjon, or in a 
separate building. The picture at the front of this book 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 185 

gives us a good idea of what it was like. It was a great 
wide room, large enough to hold all the inhabitants 
of the castle. This was the real center of the life of 
the castle. Here the lord ate and slept; here the great 
banquets were held; here he received his vassals to 
do homage; here he played chess and backgammon 
with his companions; and here in the evening the 
inmates gathered, perchance to listen to the songs and 
tales of wandering minstrels. 

Within the castle are many people, occupying them- 
selves in many ways. In the courtyards are servants 
and dependents, caring for the horses, cooking j^^^j^^^^ 
in the kitchen, and busily engaged in other in^the 
occupations. Elsewhere are those whose 
duty it is to guard the castle — the porter at the gate, the 
watchman on the tower, and the men-at-arms to defend 
the walls in case of attack. Besides these we see many 
boys and young men, who are evidently of too noble 
birth to be servants and yet are too young to be warriors. 
Who can they be.^ 

These are the sons of the lord of the castle, and of 
other lords, who are learning to be knights. Their 
training is long and careful. Until he is seven ^^^.^.^^ 
years old, the little noble is left to the care of ^^Jfigi^^hood 
his mother and the women of the castle. At 
the age of seven his knightly education begins. Usually 
the boy is sent away from home to the castle of his 
father's lord, or of some famous knight, there to be 
brought up and trained for knighthood. 

From the age of seven till he reaches the age of four- 
teen, the boy is called a ''page" or "varlet," which means 
little vassal. There he waits upon the lord ^^^ ^^^^ 
and lady of the castle. He serves them at the 
table, and he attends them when they ride forth to 



Life 
of the 
squire 



186 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

the chase. From them he learns lessons of honor and 
bravery, of love and chivalry. Above all, he learns how 
to ride and handle a horse. 

When the young noble has become a well-grown lad 
of fourteen or fifteen, he is made a '^squire." Now it 
is his duty to look after his lord's horses and 
arms. The horses must be carefully groomed 
every morning, and the squire must see that 
their shoes are all right. He must also see that his lord's 
arms and armor are kept bright and free from rust. 
When the lord goes forth to war, his squire accompanies 
him, riding on a big strong horse, and carrying his lord's 
shield and lance. When the lord goes into battle, his 
squire must stay near, leading a spare steed and ready 
to hand his master fresh weapons at any moment. After 
several years of this service, the squire may himself be 
allowed to use weapons and fight at his lord's side; and 
sometimes he may even be allowed to ride forth alone in 
search of adventures. 

In this manner the squire learns the business of a 
knight, which is fighting. But he also learns his amuse- 
ments and accomplishments. 

Let us approach a group of squires in the castle hall, 
when their work is done and they are tired of chess and 
mTntTof backgammon. They are disputing, perhaps, 
the castle as to which is the more interesting, hunting or 
falconry; and we may hear a delicate featured squire 
hold forth in this way: 

"What can be prettier than a bright-eyed, well- 
trained falcon hawk.? And what can be pleasanter than 
Falconry *^^ ^P^^^ ^^ %ing it at the birds.? Take some 
fine September morning, when the sky is blue 
and the air is fresh, and our lord and lady ride forth 
with their attendants. Each carries his falcon on his 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 



187 



gloved hand, and we hurry forward in pursuit of 
cranes, herons, ducks, and other birds. When one 
is sighted, a falcon is unhooded, and let fly at it. The 
falcon's bells tinkle merrily as he rises. Soon he is in 
the air above the game, and swift as an arrow he darts 
upon the prey, plunging his talons into it, and crouching 
over it until the hunter gallops up to recover both falcon 
and prey. This is the finest hunting. And what skill 




FALCONRY 



is necessary, too, in rearing and training the birds! 
Ah, falconry is the sport for me!" 

But this does not seem to be the opinion of others of 
the group. Their views are expressed by a tall, strongly- 
built squire, who says : 

"Falconry is all right for women and boys, but it is 
not the sport for men. What are your falcons to my 
hounds and harriers ? The education of one good boar- 



188 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

hound, I can tell you, requires as much care as all your 
falcons; and when you are done the dog loves you, and 
Hunting that is more than you can say for your hawks. 
And the chase itself is far more exciting. The 
hounds are uncoupled, and set yelping upon the scent, 
and away we dash after them, plunging through the 
woods, leaping glades and streams in our haste. At 
last we reach the spot where the game has turned at 
bay, and find an enormous boar, defending himself 
stoutly and fiercely against the hounds. Right and left 
he rolls the dogs. With his back bristling with rage, he 
charges straight for the huntsmen. Look out, now; for 
his sharp tusks cut like a knife ! But the huntsmen are 
skilled, and the dogs play well their part. Before the 
beast can reach man or horse, he is pierced by a 
dozen spears, and is nailed to the ground, dead! Isn't this 
a nobler sport than hawking.^ " 

So, we may be sure, most of the knights and squires 
will agree. But the ladies, and many of the squires 
and knights, will still love best the sport of falconry. 

In this way the squire spends his days until he reaches 
the age of twenty or twenty-one. He has now proved 
both his courage and his skill, and at last his lord says 
that he has "earned his spurs." 

So the squire is to be made a knight; and this is the 
occasion for great festivities. In company with other 
The confer- ^^^^^^^ ^ho are Candidates for knighthood, he 
k^lhthood ^^^^ ^^ through a careful preparation. First 
comes the bath, which is the mark of purifi- 
cation. Then he puts on garments of red, white, and 
black. The red means the blood he is willing to shed 
in defense of the Church and of the oppressed; the white 
means that his mind is pure and clean; and the black is 
to remind him of death, which comes to all. 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 



189 



Next comes the "watching of the arms." All night 
the squires keep watch, fasting and praying, before the 
altar in the church on which their arms have been placed ; 
and though they may stand or kneel, they must on no 
account sit or lie down. At the break of day the priest 
comes. After they have each confessed their sins to 
him, they hear mass and take the holy sacrament. 
Perhaps, too, the priest preaches a sermon on the proud 




ARMING THE KNIGHT 



duties of the knights, and the obligations which they 
owe to God and the Church. 

At last the squires assemble in the courtyard of the 
castle, or in some open place outside the walls. There 
they find great numbers of knights and ladies who have 
come to grace the occasion of their knighting. Each 
squire in turn now takes his place on a carpet which is 
spread on the ground, and his friends and relatives assist 



190 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

in girding on his armor and his sword. Then comes 
the most important moment of all. His father or his lord 
advances and gives him what is called the "accolade." 
At first this was a heavy blow with the fist, given upon 
the squire's neck; but later it was with the flat of a sword 
upon his shoulder. At the same time the person who 
gives the accolade cries out: 




A GREAT FEAST IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY 

The birds flying about have been "baked in a pie," as in the old song, and falcons 
are now loosed at them 

"In the name of God, and Saint Michael, and Saint 
George, I dub thee knight! Be brave and loyal! " 

The squire is now a knight, but the festival is not 
yet over. The new-made knights must first give an 
p^^^^ exhibition of their skill in riding and handling 

fJastinfi their horses, and in striking with their lances 
marks which are set up for them to ride at. 
Then comes fencing with their swords on horseback. 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 191 

The day is wound up with a great feast, and music and 
the distribution of presents. 

Then, at last, the guests depart; and the new-made 
knights go off to bed, to dream of Saracens to be fought 
in the Holy Land, and dragons to be slain, and wicked 
knights to be encountered, — and, above all, of beautiful 
maidens to be rescued and served with loyalty and with 
love. 

So they dream the dreams of Chivalry. And, when 
they awaken, the better ones among them — but not all, 
alas! — will seek to put their dreams into action. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Imagine yourself a page, and write a letter home telling of 

your life. 

2. Imagine yourself a squire, and write an account of the siege 

of a castle. 

3. Let the girls find out what they can of the life of the ladies 

of the castle, and make a story out of that. 

4. Describe the knighting of an imaginary squire. 

5. Read "The Story of Gilbert the Page" (Jane Andrews, 

Ten Boys). 



XXVI 
LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 

Points to be Noted 

How the knights were supported; the three classes of society 

in the Middle Ages. 
Position of the peasants; the lord's domain and the common 

lands; the three fields; the peasant's scattered strips. 
The peasants' payments to their lord; the services which they 

owed him. 
The peasants lived in villages; their houses; their furniture; 

peasant food and clothing; contempt of the nohles for 

them; possibility of leaving their lord's estate. 

One important thing about the Hfe of the knights 
and squires has not yet been explained; that is, how 
How the they were supported. They neither culti- 
wei-l*^^^ vated the fields, nor manufactured articles 

supported £^j. ^^^e, nor engaged in commerce. How, 
then, were they fed and clothed, and furnished with 
their expensive armor and horses? How, in short, was 
all this life of the castle kept up, — with its great buildings, 
its constant wars, its costly festivals, and its idleness? 

We may find the explanation of this in the saying of 
a bishop who lived in the early part of the Middle Ages. 
"God," said he, ''divided the human race from the 
beginning into three classes. These were, the priests, 
whose duty it was to pray and to serve God; the 
knights, whose duty it was to defend society; and 
the peasants, whose duty it was to till the soil and to 
support, by their labor, the other classes." 

This, indeed, was the arrangement as it existed 
during the whole of the Middle Ages. The peasants 
who tilled the soil, together with the merchants and 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 



193 



craftsmen of the towns, bore all the burden of supporting 
the more picturesque cliasses above them. 




PLAN OF VILLAGE 

The strips belonging to the lord's "domain" were usually scattered amid those held 

by his tenants, but for greater clearness they are here shown as 

if gathered into one piece 

The peasants were called "serfs" and "villains," 
and their position was very curious. For several miles 
about the castle, all the land belonged to 

^ Position 

its lord, and was called, in England, his of tiie 

peasants 

"manor." He did not own the land out- 
right, — for, as you know, he did homage and fealty for 
it to his lord or "suzerain," and the latter in turn owed 
homage and fealty to his "suzerain," and so on up to 



194 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

the king. Neither did the lord of the castle keep all 
of the manor lands in his own hands. He did not wish 
to till the land himself, so most of it was divided up and 
tilled by peasants, who kept their shares as long as they 
lived, and passed them on to their children after them. 
As long as the peasants performed the services and made 
the payments which they owed to the lord, the latter 
could not rightfully turn them out of their land. 

The part of the manor which the lord kept in his 
own hands was called his "domain," and we shall see 
The domain P^^^^^^ly how^ this was uscd. In addition 
and com- there were certain parts which were used 

mon lands '■ 

by the peasants as common pastures for 
their cattle and sheep; that is, they all had joint rights 
in this. Then there was the woodland, to which the 
peasants might each send a certain number of pigs to 
feed upon the beech nuts and acorns. Finally, there 
was the part of the manor which was given over to the 
peasants to till. 

This was usually divided into three great fields, 
without any fences, walls, or hedges about them. In 
The three One of these wc should find wheat growing, 
or some other grain that is sown in the fall; 
in another we should find a crop of some grain, such as 
oats, which requires to be sown in the spring; while in 
the third we should find no crop at all. The next year the 
arrangement would be changed, and again the next year. 
In this way, each field bore winter grain one year, spring 
grain the next, and the third year it was plowed several 
times and allowed to rest to recover its fertility. While 
resting it was said to "lie fallow." Then the round 
was repeated. This whole arrangement was due to the 
fact that people in those days did not know as much 
about " fertilizers " and " rotation of crops" as we do now. 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 



195 



The most curious arrangement of all was the way 
the cultivated land was divided up. Each peasant had 
from ten to thirty acres of land which he cul- The 
tivated; and part of this lay in each of the scatfered 
three fields. But instead of lying all together, ®^"*** 
it was scattered about in long narrow strips, each con- 
taining about an acre, with strips of unplowed sod sep- 




PEASANTS PLOWING 




PEASANTS BREAKING CLODS WITH MALLETS 

arating the plowed strips from one another. This was 
a very unsatisfactory arrangement, because each peasant 
had to waste so much time in going from one strip to 
another; and nobody has ever been able to explain quite 
clearly how it ever came about. But this is the arrange- 
ment which prevailed in almost all civilized countries 
throughout the whole of the Middle Ages, and indeed; 
in some places for long afterward. 



196 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



In return for the land which the peasant held from 
his lord, he owed the latter many payments and many 
services. He paid fixed sums of money at 
different times during the year; and if his lord 
or his lord's suzerain knighted his eldest son, 
or married off his eldest daughter, or went on a crusade, 
or was taken captive and had to be ransomed, — then 



The 

peasant's 

payments 




HARROWING 

The boj' with a sling is driving away the birds from the grain 




MEN AND WOMEN REAPING 

the peasant must pay an additional sum. At Easter 
and at other fixed times the peasant brought a gift of 
eggs or chickens to his lord; and he also gave the lord 
one or more of his lambs and pigs each year for the use 
of the pasture. At harvest time the lord received a 
portion of the grain raised on the peasant's land. In 
addition the peasant must grind his grain at his lord's 
mill, and pay the charge for this; he must also bake his 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 



197 



bread in the great oven which belonged to the lord, and 
use his lord's presses in making his cider and wine, pay- 
ing for each. 

These payments were sometimes burdensome enough, 
but they were not nearly so burdensome as the services 
which the peasants owed their lord. All Their 
the labor of cultivating the lord's domain 
land was performed by them. They plowed it with their 
great clumsy plows and ox teams; they harrowed it, 




THRESHING 

and sowed it, and weeded it, and reaped it; and finally 
they carted the sheaves to the lord's barns, and 
threshed them by beating with great jointed clubs or 
"flails." And when the work was done, the grain 
belonged entirely to the lord. About two days a week 
were spent this way in working on the lord's domam, 
and the peasants could only work on their own lands 
between times. In addition, if the lord decided to build 
new towers, or a new gate, or to erect new buildings m 



198 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

the castle, the peasants had to carry stone and mortar 
for the building, and help the paid masons in every way 
possible. 

And, when the demands of their lord were satisfied, 
there were still other demands made upon them; for 
every tenth sheaf of grain, and every tenth egg, chicken, 
lamb, pig, and calf, had to be given to the Church as 
"tithes." 

The peasants did not live scattered about the coun- 
try as our farmers do, but dwelt all together in an open 
village. If we should take our stand there 
live in on a day in spring, we should see much to 

interest us. On the hilltop above is the lord's 
castle; and near by is the parish church with the priest's 
house. In the distance are the green fields, cut into 
long narrow strips; and in them we see men plowing and 
harrowing with teams of slow-moving oxen, while women 
are busy with hooks and tongs weeding the growing 
grain. Close at hand in the village we hear the clang 
of the blacksmith's anvil, and the miller's song as he 
carries the sacks of grain and flour to and from the mill. 
Dogs are barking, donkeys are braying, cattle are lowing ; 
and through it all we hear the sound of little children at 
play or women singing at their work. 

The houses themselves were often little better than 
wooden huts thatched with straw or rushes, though 
Their somctimcs they were of stone. Even at the 

best they were dark, dingy, and unhealth- 
ful. Chimneys were just beginning to be used in the 
Middle Ages for the castles of the great lords; but in 
the peasants' houses the smoke was usually allowed to 
escape through the doorway. The door was often made 
so that the upper half could be left open for this pur- 
pose while the lower half was closed. The cattle were 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 199 

usually housed under the same roof with the peasant's 
family. 

Within the houses we should not find very much 
furniture. Here is a list of the things which one well- 
to-do family owned in the year 1345 : 

2 feather beds, 15 linen sheets, and 4 striped yellow counterpanes. 

1 hand-mill for grinding meal, a pestle and mortar for pounding 
grain, 2 grain chests, a kneading trough, and 2 ovens over which 
coals could be heaped for baking. 

2 iron tripods on which to hang kettles over the fire; 2 metal pots 
and 1 large kettle. 

1 metal bowl, 2 brass water jugs, 4 bottles, a copper box, a tin 
washtub, a metal warming-pan, 2 large chests, a box, a cup- 
board, 4 tables on trestles, a large table, and a bench. 

2 axes, 4 lances, a crossbow, a scythe, and some other tools. 

The food and clothing of the peasant were coarse 
and simple, but were usually sufficient for his needs. 
At times, however, war or a succession of p^^^^^^ 
bad seasons would bring famine upon a dis- [^^f^^^^^ 
trict. Then the suffering would be terrible; 
for there were no provisions saved up, and the roads 
were so bad and communication so difficult that it was 
hard to bring suppUes from other regions where there was 
plenty. At such times, the peasants suffered most. 
They were forced to eat roots, herbs, and the bark of 
trees; and often they died by hundreds for want of even 
such food. 

Thus you will see that the lot of the peasant was a 
hard one; and it was often made still harder by the 
cruel contempt which the nobles felt for those Contempt 
whom they looked upon as "base-born." f^J^^^J^^^^^^ 
The name "villains" was given the peasants 
because they lived in villages; but the nobles have 
handed down the name as a term of reproach. In a 
poem, which was written to please the nobles no doubt. 



200 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

the writer scolds at the villain because he was too well 
fed, and, as he says, " made faces " at the clergy. " Ought 
he to eat fish?" the poet asks. "Let him eat thistles, 
briars, thorns, and straw, on Sunday, for fodder; and pea- 
husks during the week ! Let him keep watch all his days, 
and have trouble. Thus ought villains to live. Ought 
he to eat meats .^ He ought to go naked on all fours, 
and crop herbs with the horned cattle in the fields!" 

Of course there were many lords who did not feel 
this way toward their peasants. Ordinarily the peasant 
Possibility was not nearly so badly off as the slave in the 
^hlTrd^f Greek and Roman days; and often, perhaps, 
estate j^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^jj ^g ^^ many of the peasants of 

Europe today. But there was this difference between 
his position and that of the peasant now. Many of 
them could not leave their lord's manors, and move 
elsewhere, without their lord's permission. If they did 
so, their lord could pursue them, and bring them back. 
If, however, they succeeded in getting to a free town, and 
dwelt there for a year and a day without being recap- 
tured, then they became freed from their lord, and might 
dwell where they chose. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a list of the ways in which the farming of the Middle 

Ages differed from that of the United States today. 

2. How do you suppose the cattle, sheep, pigs, and geese were 

prevented from straying into the cultivated fields, in the 
absence of fences and hedges? 

3. Why did the peasants live in villages, instead of in scat- 

tered farmhouses? 

4. What can you learn concerning the cooking arrangements 

of the Middle Ages, from the list of household posses- 
sions on p. 199, and from the fact that all the bread for 
the village was baked in one great oven? 

5. Would you be likely to find any stores in a village of the 

Middle Ages? Give reasons for your answer. 



XXVII 
LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWNS 

Points to be Noted 

Decay of towns after the coming of the Germans; gradual 
growth of better conditions. 

Kevival of towns in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth cen- 
turies; the towns in Italy, in Germany, and in France; 
what the towns did for the world. 

Privileges of the towns; their rights of self-government; 
struggles within the towns; their independence finally lost. 

Life in the towns; the walls, streets, and houses; shops 
and workmen; the apprentices; the guilds; the cathedral; 
the bell tower. 

The great fairs of the Middle Ages; a busy street scene. 

The Germans had never lived in cities in their old 
homes; so, when they came into the Roman Empire, they 
preferred the free life of the country to Decay of 
settling within town walls. The old Roman under Ger- 
cities, which had sprung up all over the ^^"^"® 
Empire, had already lost much of their importance, and 
under these country-loving conquerors they soon lost 
what was left. In many places the inhabitants entirely 
disappeared; other places decreased in size; and all 
lost what rights they had had of governing themselves. 

The inhabitants of the towns became no better off 
than the peasants who lived in the little villages. In 
both the people lived by tilling the soil. In both the 
lord of the district made laws, appointed officers, and 
settled disputes in his own court. There was little 
difference, indeed, between the villages and towns, 
except a difference in size. 

This was the condition of affairs during the early 
part of the Middle Ages, while feudalism was slowly 

201 



202 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



arising, and the nobles were beating back the attacks 
of the Northmen and other invaders. 

At length, in the tenth and eleventh centuries danger 

from invaders ceased. Then men might travel from 

place to place, without such constant danger 

Growth of ^ . ^ . ^ 

better con- of being robbcd or slain. Commerce and 

ditions 

manufactures began slowly to revive, espec- 
ially in the towns. With commerce and manufactures, 
too, came riches. This was especially true in Italy and 
Southern France, where the townsmen were able, by 




A GERMAN TOWN 



their geographical position, to take part in the trade 
with Constantinople and Egypt, and also to gain money 
by carrying pilgrims in their ships to the Holy Land. 
With riches, also, came power; and with power came the 
desire to free themselves from the rule of their lord. 

So, all over civilized Europe, during the eleventh, 
twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, we find new towns 
arising and old ones getting the right to 
govern themselves. In Italy the towns 
gained power first; then in Southern France; then in 



Revival of 
towns 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 203 

Northern France; and then along the valley of the 
River Rhine, and the coasts of the Baltic Sea. Some- 
times the towns bought their freedom from their lords; 
sometimes they won it after long struggles and much 
fighting. Sometimes the nobles and the clergy were 
wise enough to join with the townsmen, and share in the 
benefits which the town brought; sometimes they fought 
them foolishly and bitterly. 

In Germany and in Italy, the power of the kings was 
not great enough to make much difference one way or 
the other. In France, the kings favored the towns 
against their lords, and used them to break down the 
power of the feudal nobles. Then, when the kings' 
power had become so strong that they no longer 
feared the nobles, they checked the power of the 
towns, lest they in turn might become powerful and 
independent. 

Thus, in different ways and at different times, there 
grew up the cities of medieval Europe. 

In Italy, there sprang up the free cities of Venice, 
Florence, Pisa, Genoa, and others, where scholars and 
artists were to arise and bring a new birth to ^^^^ ^^^ 
learning and art; where, also, daring seamen did for the 
were to be trained, like Columbus, Cabot, 
and Vespucius, to discover in later times the New World. 
In France, the citizens showed their skill by building 
those beautiful Gothic cathedrals, which are still so 
much admired. In the towns of Germany and Holland, 
clever workmen invented and developed the art of 
printing, and so made possible the learning and education 
of today. The civilization of modern times, indeed, 
owes a great debt to these old towns, and to their sturdy 
inhabitants. 

Let us see now what those privileges were which the 



204 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

townsmen got, and which enabled them to help on 
Privileges of the world's progress so much. To us these 
the towns privileges would not seem so very great. In 
hundreds of towns in France the lords granted only such 
rights as the following: 

1. The townsmen shall pay only small fixed sums for the rent of 
their lands, and as a tax when they sell goods, etc. 

2. They shall not be obliged to go to war for their lord, unless 
they can return the same day, if they choose. 

3. When they have lawsuits, the townsmen shall not be obliged 
to go outside the town to have them tried. 

4. No charge shall be made for the use of the town oven; and 
the townsmen may gather the dead wood in the lord's forest for fuel. 

5. The townsmen shall be allowed to sell their property when 
they wish, and leave town without hindrance from the lord. 

6. Any peasant who remains a year and a day in the town, with- 
out being claimed by his lord, shall be free. 

In other places the townsmen got, in addition, the 
right to elect their own judges; and, in still others, they 
got the right to elect all their officers. 

Towns of this latter class were sometimes called 

'* communes." Over them the lord had very Httle 

right, except to receive such sums of money 

of self- as it was agreed should be paid to him. In 

government . • x. i j.i 

some places, as m Italy, these communes 
became practically independent, and had as much power 
as the lords themselves. They made laws, and coined 
money, and had their vassals, and waged war just as the 
lords did. But there was this important difference: 
In the communes the rights belonged to the citizens as 
a whoky and not to one person. This made all the 
citizens feel an interest in the town affairs, and produced 
an enterprising, determined spirit in them. At the 
same time, the citizens were trained in the art of self- 
government, in using these rights. In this way, the 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 205 




ATTACK UPON A CITY IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 



206 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

world was being prepared for a time when governments 
like ours — "of the people, for the people, and by the 
people," — should be possible. 

But this was to come only after many, many years. 

The townsmen often used their power selfishly, and in 

the interest of their own families and their 

Struggles 

within the own class. At times the rich and powerful 

towns ^ 

townsmen were as cruel and harsh toward the 
poorer and weaker classes as the feudal lords themselves. 
Fierce and bitter struggles then broke out between the 
citizens who had power and those who had none. Often, 
too, there were great family quarrels, continued from 
generation to generation, like the one which is told of 
in Shakespeare's play, Romeo and Juliet. 

It will not surprise you to learn that the communes 

everywhere, at last, lost their independence. Either 

. they came under the rule of the King, as in 

indepen- France, or else, as happened in Italy, they fell 

dence lost . ^^ j ' .7 

into the power of some "tyrant" or local lord. 
But let us think of the earnest, busy life of these old 
townsmen, and their quaint surroundings, rather than 
of their weaknesses and mistakes. Imagine yourself 
a peasant lad, fleeing from your lord, or coming for the 
first time to the market in the city. 

As we approach the city gates, we see that the walls 
are strong, and are crowned with turrets. The gate is 

defended with drawbridge and portcullis, 
streets and like the entrance to a castle. Within are 

houses • T • 1 

narrow, winding streets, with rows of tall- 
roofed houses, each with its garden attached. The 
houses themselves are more like our houses today, 
than like the Greek and Roman ones; for they have no 
courtyard in the interior and are several stories high. 
The roadways are often unpaved, and full of mud; and 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 



207 



there are no sewers. If you walk the streets after night- 
fall, you must carry a torch to light your footsteps, for 
there are no street-lamps. There are no policemen; 
but if you are out after dark, you must beware of the 
"city watch," who take turns in guarding the city, for 
they will make you give a strict account of yourself. 

Now, however, it is 
day, and we need 
have no 
fear. Pres- and 

workmen 

ently we 

come into the business 
parts of the city, and 
there we find the 
different trades 
grouped together in 
different streets. 
Here are the gold- 
smiths, and there are 
the tanners; here the 
cloth merchants, and 
there the butchers ; 
here the armor- 
smiths, and there the 
money-changers. 
The shops are all 
small and on the 
ground floor, with their wares exposed for sale in the 
open windows. 

Let us look in at one of the goldsmiths' shops. The 
shopkeeper and his wife are busily engaged, waiting 
on customers and inviting passers-by to stop and 
examine their goods. Within we see several men and 
boys at work, making the goods which their master 




A MEDIEVAL SHOP 



208 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

sells. There the gold is melted and refined; the right 
amount of alloy is mixed with it; then it is cast, beaten, 
and filed into the proper shape. Then, perhaps, the 
article is enameled, and jewels are set in it. 

All of these things are done in this one little shop; 
and so it is with each trade. The workmen must all 
begin at the beginning, and start with the rough material; 
and the '* apprentices, " as the boys are called, must 
learn each of the processes by which the raw material 
is turned into the finished article. 

Thus a long term of apprenticeship is necessary for 
each trade, lasting sometimes for ten years. During 
The this time, the boys are fed, clothed, and lodged 

apprentices ^-^j^ their master's family, above the shop, 
and receive no pay. If they misbehave, the master 
has the right to punish them; and if they run away, 
he can pursue them and bring them back. Their life, 
however, is not so hard as that of the peasant boys, for 
they are better fed and housed, and have more to look 
forward to. 

When their apprenticeship is finished, they will become 
full members of the "guild" of their trade, and may 
work for whomever they please. For a while 
they may wander from city to city, working 
now for this master and now for that. In each city 
they will find the workers of their trade united into a 
guild, with a charter from the king, or other lord, which 
permits them to make rules for the carrying on of that 
business, and to shut out from it all persons who have 
not served a regular apprenticeship. So, in each impor- 
tant town, there are "craft guilds" of stonecutters, 
plasterers, carpenters, blacksmiths, weavers, and the 
like, as well as a "merchant guild," composed of those 
who trade with other places. 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 



209 



The more ambitious boys will not be content with a 
mere workman's life. They will look forward to a time 
when they shall have saved up money enough to start 
in business for themselves. Then they, too, will become 
masters, with workmen and apprentices under them; and 
perhaps, in course of time, if they grow in wealth and 
wisdom, they may be elected rulers over the city. 



i 







CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL (England) 



Let us leave the shops of the workers and pass on. 
As we wander about we find many churches and chapels; 
and perhaps we come, after a while, to a 
great "cathedral" or bishop's church, rearing cathedral 
its lofty roof to the sky. No pains have been 
spared to make this as grand and imposing as possible; 



210 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

and we gaze upon its great height with awe, and wonder 
at the marvelously quaint and clever patterns in which 
the stone is carved. 

We leave this, also, after a time; and then we come 

to the "belfry" or town-hall. This is the real center 

of the life of the city. Here is the strong 

The . 

belfry or squarc towcr, like the "donjon" of a castle, 
where the townsmen may make their last 
stand, in case an enemy succeeds in entering their 
walls, and they cannot beat him back in their narrow 
streets. 

On top of the tower is the bell, with watchmen always 
on the lookout to give the signal, in case of fire or other 
danger. The bell is also used for more peaceful purposes. 
It summons the citizens, from time to time, to public 
meetings. Also, at eight or nine o'clock in the evening, 
it sounds the "curfew" (French couvre feu, "cover fire") 
as a signal to cover the fire with ashes, and cease from 
the day's labors. 

Within the tower are dungeons for prisoners and 
meeting rooms for the rulers of the city. There, also, 
are strong rooms, where the city money is kept, together 
with the great seal of the city. Lastly, there too is the 
charter which gives the city its liberties — the most 
precious of all the city's possessions. 

Even in ordinary times the city presents a bustling, 
busy appearance. If it is a town which holds a fair, 
The great oucc or twicc a year, what shall we say of 
^^"^ it then? For several weeks, at such times, 

the city is one vast bazaar. Strange merchants come 
from all parts of the land to set up their booths and 
stalls along the streets, and the city shops are crowded 
with goods. From miles about the people throng in to 
buy the things they need. 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 



211 



Below is a picture of the streets of a city during 
fair- time, in the thirteenth century. In the middle of 
the picture, we see a townsman and his wife . ^ 

. . . A busy 

returning home after making their purchases, street 
Behind them are a knight and his attendant, 
on horseback, picking their way through the crowd. 
On the right-hand side of the street is the shop of a cloth 
merchant, and we see the merchant and his wife show- 




A FAIR IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 



ing goods to customers, while workmen are unpacking 
a box in the street. Next door is a tavern, with its 
sign hung out; and near this we see a cross, which some 
pious person has erected at the street corner. On the 
left-hand side of the street we see a cripple begging for 
alms. Back of him is another cloth-merchant's shop; 
and next to this is a money-changer's table, where a 
group of people are having money weighed, to see that 



212 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

there is no cheating in the payment. Beyond this is 
an elevated stage, on which a company of tumblers and 
jugglers are performing, with a crowd of people about 
them. In the background we see some tall-roofed 
houses, topped with turrets; and beyond these we can 
just make out the spire of a church rising to the sky. 

This is, indeed, a busy scene, and it is a picture with 
which we may fittingly close our account. It well 
shows the energy and the activity which, during the 
later Middle Ages, made the towns the starting-place 
for so many important movements. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a list of the things which caused the decline of the 

towns at the beginning of the Middle Ages. 

2. Make another list of the things which helped their growth 

in numbers, wealth, and powers of self-government. 

3. Imagine yourself an apprentice lad, and write an account 

of your life. 

4. Study .the picture on p. 211, and write a letter describing an 

imaginary visit to a fair in the Middle Ages. 



XXVIII 
THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

Points to be Noted 

Power of the Church in the Middle Ages; its organization; 

Pope, archbishops and bishops, priests; their duties. 
Why men became monks; the rule of St. Benedict; dress of the 

monks; friars and nuns. 
The monastery buildings and lands; plan of a monastery. 
Hours for worship; labors and humility of the monks; they 

cop3^ books; their services to education; histories written 

by the monks. 
The three vows taken by a monk; enforcement of the rules; 

how one became a monk; a letter from a novice. 

In an earlier chapter you have seen that, even before 
the Germans overthrew the Roman Empire, the Chris- 
tian Church had become a great and powerful 
organization. In the troubled centuries which jl*^^®. 
followed that overthrow, the Church grew 
ever stronger. While all else made for lawlessness and 
disorder, it alone preached order, union, and justice. 
When it converted the barbarians, it presented to cruel 
warriors like Clovis an ideal of meekness and self-sacri- 
fice. In time the Church was granted many rights 
and privileges. Its priests were sacred, and whoever 
touched them or seized its property was declared ac- 
cursed. The interdict (see page 164) was only one out 
of many weapons which it possessed. A large part of 
the government was in its hands. It humbled the 
proudest kings and emperors, and at times its head 
forced them to become his vassals. All through the 
Middle Ages the Church exercised a power much greater 
than it does today. 

213 



214 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




CATHEDRAL OF COLOGNE (Germany) 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 215 



Much of the strength and order which had marked 
the government of the Roman Empire passed into the 
organizatic^gl^f the Christian Church. At us organ- 
its head stood the Pope. He was bishop of 
Rome, and as such was successor to Saint Peter, to 
whom it was believed that Christ had given power 
over his Church on earth. Below the Pope were the 
archbishops and bishops, each 
of whom ruled over an important 
district in the church. The 
church building in which a bishop 
or archbishop held his services 
was called a cathedral; in the 
preceding chapter we have read 
of the grandeur and beauty of 
many of these. Below the 
bishops and archbishops were 
the parish priests, of whom there 
were one or more in every con- 
siderable village. 

Pope, bishops, and priests were 
all part of the "clergy," and were 
all alike concerned in teaching 
the truths of the Christian 
religion to the people. They 
held services in the churches, 
solemnized marriages, baptized 
children, buried the dead, consoled the living. They 
were the ones of the clergy who especially brought 
the Christian religion into the lives of the people. 

But there was another branch also of the clergy, as 
we have seen, who withdrew from the world and led 
their lives and served God apart. These were the 
monks. In the Middle Ages men thought that storms 




HEAD OF A BISHOP'S 
STAFF 



216 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

and lightning, famine and sickness, were signs of the 
wrath of God, or were the work of evil spirits. The 
Monk- world was a terrible place to them; and they 

monasterie ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ pleased when they renounced 
it, and voluntarily led lives of hardship and 
self-denial. The result was that great numbers became 
monks, and the monasteries became a most important 
part of the medieval Church. In Western Europe most 
of the monasteries were governed by a set of rules which 
had been drawn up in Italy (in 529 a.d.), by a monk 
named Benedict, and which was called the Benedictine 
Rule. 

The rule prescribed that the dress of the monks should 
be of coarse woolen cloth, with a cowl or hood which 
Dress could be pulled up to protect the head; and 

of the about the waist a cord was to be worn for a 

monks 

girdle. The gown of the Benedictines was 
usually black, so they were called "black monks." 
As the centuries went by, new orders of monks were 
founded, with new rules. In this way arose ''white 
monks," and monks of other names. 

In addition, orders of "friars" were founded, espe- 
cially by Saint Francis and by Saint Dominic. These 
Orders of Were like the monks in many ways, but lived 
friars and morc iu the world, preaching, teaching, and 
caring for the sick. The friars also were 
called "black friars," "gray friars," or " white friars, " 
according to the color of their dress. 

Besides the orders for men, there were also orders of 
"nuns" for women. Saint Scholastica, the friend of 
Saint Benedict, and Saint Clara, the friend of Saint 
Francis, were the founders of two important orders of 
nuns. In some places in the Middle Ages nunneries 
became almost as common as monasteries. 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 217 

Let us try, now, to see what a Benedictine monastery 
was like. One of Benedict's rules provided that every 
monastery should be so arranged that every- ^^^ 
thing the monks needed would be in the ™^5ff^|7 
monastery itself, and there would be no need 
for the monks to go outside; "for this," said Benedict, 
*'is not at all good for their souls." Each monastery, 
therefore, became a settlement complete in itself. It 
not only had its halls, where the monks ate and slept, 
and its own church; it had also its own mill, its own 
bake-oven, and its own workshops, where the monks 
made the things which they needed. 

The better to shut out the world, and to protect the 
monastery against robbers, the buildings were sur- 
rounded by a strong wall. Outside of this The mon- 
lay the fields of the monastery, where the ^^*®'"^ 
monks themselves raised the grain they needed, or 
which were tilled for them by peasants, in the same 
way that the lands of the lords were tilled. Finally, 
there was the woodland where the swine were herded, 
and the pasture lands where the cattle and sheep were 
sent to graze. 

The amount of land belonging to a monastery was 
often quite large. Nobles and kings frequently gave 
gifts of land, and the monks in return prayed for their 
souls. Often, when the land came into the possession 
of the monks, it was covered with swamps or forests. 
By unwearying labor the swamps were drained and the 
forests felled, and soon smiling fields appeared where 
before there was only a wilderness. 

On the next page is a picture of a German monastery, 
at the close of the Middle Ages. There we ^^^J^\^^ 
see the wall, surrounded by a ditch, which monastery 
inclosed the buildings and protected the monastery 



218 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

from attack. To enter the inclosure, we must cross the 
bridge and present ourselves at the gate. When we have 
passed this, we see to the left stables for cattle and 
horses, while to the right are gardens of herbs for the 
cure of the sick. Near by is the monks' graveyard, 
with the graves marked by little crosses. 

In the center of the inclosure are workshops, where 
the monks work at different trades. The tall building. 




A GERMAN MONASTERY 

with the spires crowned with the figures of saints, is the 
church, where the monks hold services at regular inter- 
vals, throughout the day and night. 

Adjoining this, in the form of a square, are the build- 
ings in which the monks sleep and eat. This is the 
"cloister," and it is the principal part of the monastery. 
In southern lands, this inner square or cloister was 
usually surrounded on all sides by a porch or piazza, 
the roof of which was supported on long rows of pillars: 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 219 



and here the monks might pace to and fro, in quiet 
talk, when the duties of worship and labor did not 
occupy their time. 

In addition to these buildings, there are many others 
which we cannot stop to describe. Some are used to 
carry on the work of the monastery: some are for the 
use of the abbot, who is the ruler of the monks; some 
are hospitals for the sick; and some are guest chambers, 
where travelers are lodged over night. 

In the guest cham- 
bers, the travelers 
may sleep undisturbed 
all the night through. 
It is not so with the 
monks. They must 
begin their worship 
long before the sun 
is up. Soon after mid- 
night the bell of the 
monastery rings, the 
monks arise from their hard beds, and gather in the 
church, to recite prayers, read portions of the Bible, and 
sing psalms. Not less than twelve of the Hours for 
psalms of the Old Testament must be read ^""^^ '^ 
each night, at this service. At daybreak the bell rings 
again, and once more the monks gather in the church. 
This is the first of the seven services which are held 
during the day. The others come at seven o'clock in the 
morning, nine o'clock, at noon, at three in the afternoon, 
at six o'clock, and at bedtime. At each of these there are 
prayers, reading from the scriptures, and chanting of 
psalms. Latin is the only language used in the church ser- 
vices of the West in the Middle Ages; so the Bible is read, 
the psalms sung, and the prayers recited in this tongue. 




A FRENCH CLOISTER 



220 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

The services are so arranged that in the course of every 
week the entire Psalter, or psalm book, is gone through; 
then, at the Sunday night service, they begin again. 

Besides attending these services, there were many 
other things which the monks must do. " Idleness, " wrote 
Labors and ^^^^^ Benedict, "is the enemy of the soul;'* 
Jjj»™i"ty of so he arranged that, at fixed hours during the 
day, the monks should labor with their hands. 
Some plowed the fields, harrowed them, and planted 
and harvested the grain. Others worked at various 
trades in the workshops of the monasteries. If any 
brother showed too much pride in his work, and put 
himself above the others because of his skill, he was 
made to work at something else. The monks must 
be humble at all times. 

"A monk," said Benedict, "must always show 
humility, — not only in his heart, but with his body also. 
This is so whether he is at work or at prayer; whether 
he is in the monastery, in the garden, in the road, or 
in the fields. Everywhere — sitting, walking, or stand- 
ing — let him always be with head bowed, his looks 
fixed upon the ground; and let him remember every 
hour that he is guilty of his sins. " 

One of the most useful labors which the monks per- 
formed was the copying and writing of books. 

At certain hours of the day, especially on Sundays, 

the brothers were required by Benedict's rule to read 

and to study. In the Middle Ages, of course. 

The monks .-t •,• 11111 

copybooks there were no prmtmg presses, and all books 
were "manuscript" — that is, they were copied, 
a letter at a time, by hand. So, in each well-regulated 
monastery, there was a writing room or "scriptorium,'* 
where some of the monks worked at copying manuscripts. 
The writing was usually done on skins of parchment. 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 221 



These the monks cut to the size of the page, rubbing 
the surface smooth with pumice stone. Then the 
margins were marked, and the lines ruled, with sharp 
awls. The writing was done with pens made of quills 
or of reeds, and with ink made of soot mixed with gum 
and acid. 

The greatest care was used in forming each letter, 
and at the beginning of the chapters a large initial was 
made. Sometimes these initials were really pictures, 
beautifully "illuminated" in blue, gold, and crimson. 
All this required skill 
and great pains. 

"He who does not 
know how to write," 
wrote a monk at the 
end of one manu- 
script, "imagines that 
it is no labor; but, 
though only three 
fingers hold the pen, 
the whole body grows 
weary. " 

And another one 
wrote: "I pray you, good readers who may use this 
book, do not forget him who copied it. It was a poor 
brother named Louis, who while he copied the volume 
(which was brought from a foreign country) endured the 
cold, and was obliged to finish in the night what he 
could not write by day. " 

The monks by copying books did a great service to 
the world, for it was in this way that many valuable 
works were preserved during the dark ages of the bar- 
barian invasions, when violence and ignorance spread, 
and the love of learning had almost died out. 




MONK IN SCRIPTORIUM 



222 . THE STORY OF EUROPE 

In other ways, also, the monks helped the cause of 

learning. At a time when no one else took the trouble, 

. or knew how, to write a history of the things 

services to that Were going on, the monks in most of 

education ^ ^ 

the great monasteries wrote "annals" or 
''chronicles" in which events were each year set down. 
And at a time when there were no schools except those 
provided by the Church, the monks taught boys to read 
and to write, so that there might always be learned 
men to carry on the work of religion. The educa- 
tion which they gave, and the books which they 
wrote, were of course in Latin, like the services of the 
Church; for this was the only language of educated 
men. 

The histories which the monks wrote were, no doubt, 

very poor ones, and the schools were not very good; 

but they were ever so much better than none 

Histories '^ 

written by at all. Here is what a monk wrote in the 

monks ,, . 

"annals" of his monastery, as the history of 
the year 807; it will show us something about both the 
histories and the schools: 

"807. Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, died; and there was great 
sickness in the monastery of Saint ]?oniface, so that many of the 
younger brothers died. The boys of the monastery school beat their 
teacher, and ran away." 

That is all we are told. Were the boys just unruly 
and restless? Did they rebel at the tasks at school, at 
a time when their King was waging mighty wars; and 
did they long to become knights and warriors, instead 
of priests and monks? Or was it on account of the 
sickness that they ran away? We cannot tell. That 
is the way it is with many things in the Middle Ages. 
Most of what we know about the history of that time 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 223 



and we learn from the "chronicles" kept by the monks, 
these do not tell us nearly all that we should like to know. 
The three most important things which were 
required of the monks were that they should 
have no property of their own, that Three vows 
they should not marry, and that ^^'^^^'^^ 

they should obey 
those who were 
placed over them. 

"A monk," said 
Benedict, ''should 
have absolutely 
nothing, neither a 
book, nor a tablet, 
nor a pen." Even 
the clothes which 
they wore were 
the property of the 
monastery. If any 
gifts were sent them 
by their friends or 
relatives, they must 
turn them over to the 
abbot, for the use of the monastery as a whole. 
The rule of obedience required that a monk, 
when ordered to do a thing, should do it with- 
out delay; and if impossible things were com- 
manded, he must at least make the attempt. 
The rule about marrying was equally strict; 
and in some monasteries it was counted a sin even 
to look upon a woman. 

Other rules forbade the monks to talk at certain 
times of the day and in their sleeping halls. For fear 
lest they might forget themselves at the table. Saint 




ILLUMINATED INITIAL 

The picture shows several younj 
men receiving the "tonsure" — that 
is, having the hair clipped from the 
top of their heads as a sign that 
they are to become priests 



224 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Benedict ordered that one of the brethren should always 
read aloud at meals, from some holy book. All were 
required to Hve on the simplest and plainest food. 

The rules, indeed, were so strict that it was often 
difficult to enforce them, especially after the monasteries 
became rich and powerful. Then, although 
men[oTthe the mouks might not have any property of 
'"*^' their own, they enjoyed vast riches belonging 

to the monastery as a whole, and often lived in luxury 
and idleness. When this happened, there was usually 
a reaction, and a new order of monks arose with stricter 
rules. So, we have times of zeal and strict enforcement 
of the rules, followed by periods of decay; and these, 
in turn, followed by new periods of strictness. This 
went on to the close of the Middle Ages, when many 
of the monasteries were done away with. 

When a person wished to become a monk, he had 
first to go through a trial. He must become a ''novice" 
and live in a monastery, under its rules, for 
Kme\ a year; then, if he was still of the same mind, 
™'**'^ he took the vows of Poverty, Chastity, and 

Obedience. "From that day forth," says the rule 
of Saint Benedict, "he shall not be allowed to depart 
from the monastery, nor to shake from his neck the yoke 
of the rule; for, after so long delay, he was at liberty 
either to receive it or to refuse it." 

When the monasteries had become corrupt, some naen 
no doubt became monks in order that they might live 
in idleness and luxury. But let us think rather of the 
many men who became monks because they believed 
that this was the best way to serve God. 

Let us think in closing of one of the best of the monas- 
teries of the Middle Ages, and let us look at its life 
through the eyes of a noble young novice. The monas- 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 225 

tery was in France, and its abbot, Saint Bernard, was 
famous throughout the Christian world for his piety 
and zeal. Of this monastery the novice writes: 

"I watch the monks at their daily services, and at 
their nightly vigils from midnight to the dawn; and as 
I hear them singing so holily and unweary- 
ingly, they seem to me more Hke angels than of a^' 
men. Some of them have been bishops or 
rulers, or else have been famous for their rank and 
knowledge; now all are equal, and no one is higher or 
lower than any other. I see them in the gardens with 
the hoe, in the meadows with fork and rake, in the 
forests with the ax. When I remember what they 
have been, and consider their present condition and 
work, their poor and ill-made clothes, my heart tells 
me that they are not the dull and speechless beings they 
seem, but that their life is hid with Christ in the heavens. 

"Farewell! God willing, on the next Sunday after 
Ascension Day, I, too, shall put on the armor of my pro- 
fession as a monk." 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a list of the ways in which the monks helped the 

world. 

2. Why do not so many persons become monks and nuns now 

as in the Middle Ages? 



XXIX 
PILGRIMAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Points to be Noted 

Places to which pilgrimages were made; why men went on 
pilgrimages. 

Dress of the pilgrims; what they carried; how they traveled; 
where they were entertained. 

Pilgrimages over sea; difficulties and dangers; preparations. 

Completion of a pilgrimage; medals and palm branches; offer- 
ings; number of pilgrims; influence. 

Rise and spread of Mohammedanism; date; coming of the 
Turks; date; difference which this made. 

Eequest of the Eastern Emperor for aid; what a Crusade was; 
why men went on Crusades. 

Almost the only traveling to and fro in the Middle 
Ages — especially before the revival of commerce which 

we have mentioned in describing the life in 
^^|rims ^^^ towns — was that of the pilgrims and 

crusaders. The pilgrims were men, and 
sometimes women, who traveled long distances in 
order to visit spots made holy by their connection with 
the Christian religion. Some of these places were in 
Europe, such as the tomb of Saint Thomas Becket, at 
Canterbury, in England, or that of Saint James of Com- 
postella,in Spain; or those of the Apostles Peter and Paul, 
in Rome. More important than these, however, were 
the holy places of Palestine, which were connected with 
the life and death of our Lord Jesus Christ. 

At a very early time men began to visit such holy 
spots. These visits made more real to the pilgrims the 

lives and teachings of Christ and the saints, 
pilgrimages Men also bclieved that their prayers would 

more certainly be heard when they were 
uttered from a place made sacred by the life of some 

236 



PILGRIMAGES IN THE MIDDLE AGES 227 



holy man, and that their bodies would thus be healed 
from disease and their souls cleansed from sin. Love 
of adventure, a restless spirit, and a desire to see new 
lands, also impelled men to make pilgrimages. Con- 
sequently, just as soon as it became safe to travel at all, 
we find men going in constantly increasing numbers 
to such pilgrim shrines. 

The pilgrims were under the protection of the Church, 
and wore a special dress. Usually this consisted of a 
gray woolen robe, with 
a hood which could be of the 
pulled over the head. 
The pilgrim wore a broad-brimmed 
hat, and carried a staff, a sack, 
and a gourd cup to drink out of. 
At first the pilgrims lodged in the 
monasteries; but as their numbers 
increased separate houses were 
established for their entertainment, 
especially on the great Alpine 
passes, in the chief cities in Italy, 
and in Jerusalem. 

By land the pilgrims usually 
traveled on foot; though nobles 
often went on horseback, 
with a considerable com- 
pany of followers, and in 
Palestine donkeys were frequently 
used. In England there was a road which, from the 
number of pilgrims who traveled over it, was called "the 
palmer's way." (Pilgrims returning from the Holy 
Land usually carried palm-branches and hence were 
called "palmers.") On some much traveled roads there 
were regular stations where horses could be hired, which 




Traveling 
on land 



A PILGRIM 



228 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



were then given up at the next station. The road which 
led to Canterbury was the great highroad to the Conti- 
nent, and along it were many inns at which travelers 
could refresh themselves, and chapels at which they 
could stop to say prayers and perform their devotions. 
Persons of all ranks, both men and women, met together 
in these inns; and the long evenings were given up to 
stories of adventures by the way, and to strange tales 
heard from others. The English poet Chaucer, in his 
poem The Canterbury Tales, pictures for us such a com- 
pany gathered together on the pilgrimage to the tomb 






CANTERBURY PILCIRIMS 



of Saint Thomas of Canterbury, and gives us the stories 
which each of the travelers is supposed to have told. 

On more distant pilgrimages the difficulties and dan- 
gers, and also the attractions, were much greater. The 

roads were bad and unsafe, rivers were often 
ovefseT^^*^ difficult to cross, the mountain passes fatiguing 

and dangerous. Worst of all were the sea 
voyages, which at times could not be avoided. The 
vessels were small, and the pilgrims closely crowded 
together; the food was bad and the smells intolerable; 
most of the pilgrims were unaccustomed to the sea, and 
became dreadfully seasick. Books were written as 
guides to the pilgrims, telling them how much they 



PILGRIMAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 229 

should pay for their sea-passage from Venice to the Holy 
Land, and the preparations they should make for the 
voyage. They must take with them a feather bed, 
with pillows, sheets, and blankets; they should take 
some provisions for their private use, together with 
necessary medicines; and they should beware alike of 
foreign fruits and robbers when they landed. A list of 
phrases in foreign tongues was usually given, so that 
the pilgrim in a strange land might ask his way, and 
purchase necessary things. 

When one had completed his pilgrimage, he usually 
bought at the shrine of the saint a pewter medal, some- 
times shaped like a cockleshell, on which 

. Completion 

was stamped the name oi the saint together of a 

• 1 rr«i • pilgrimage 

With some pious words. This was sewn on the 
hat or worn on the breast, as a sign that one had com- 
pleted his pilgrimage. Often one met with men who 
wore many such medals, from many different shrines. 
On leaving a shrine, you made an offering of money to 
the saint; and many shrines became very rich from the 
silver, gold, and precious objects offered by worshipers 
who visited them. For a long time the stories which the 
pilgrims told of their travels gave the people of Western 
Europe almost their only knowledge of distant lands 
and nations. 

As time went on, the number of persons who went on 
pilgrimages became larger and larger. The greatest 
single company which went to the Holy Land, before 
the Crusades, set out from Germany in the year 1064, 
and numbered 7000 persons. The danger which 
attended such expeditions is seen from the fact that out 
of this number only 2000 ever returned to their homes. 
The others perished on the way — from sickness, hard- 
ship, accident, and conflicts with hostile peoples. 



230 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

The Crusades differed from these peaceful pilgrimages 
in that they were armed attempts to restore Jerusalem 
and the Holy Land to the rule of the Christians. 

In the days of Christ and the Apostles, Palestine was 
a part of the Roman Empire; but in the seventh century 
Rise and after Christ it passed under the rule of the 
Mohani^* Arabs, who had recently established a new 
medanism ^.^n^i^^ ^his religion wc Call Mohammed- 
anism, from its founder, Mohammed. He had rescued 
the Arabs from idolatry, and had taught them that there 
was but one God (Allah), of whom he (Mohammed) was 
the Prophet. Within less than a hundred years from 
Mohammed's death, in 632, his followers had conquered 
a vast empire, which included most of Western x\sia, all of 
North Africa, and the peninsula of Spain in Western 
Europe. But in Eastern Europe what was left of the old 
Roman Empire proved too strong for them. There the 
strongly fortified city of Constantinople held them in 
check; and although the Eastern Emperors were not 
able to save Palestine, they did save Eastern Europe 
for several centuries from Mohammedan conquest. 

For a time the Christians did not trouble themselves 
very much over the fact that the religion of Mohammed 
was established in Palestine side by side with that of 
Christ. They were too busy at home, fighting Northmen 
and working out the institutions under which they 
were to live, to give much attention to things so far 
away. The Arabs, moreover, respected the holy places 
of the Christians, and allowed pilgrims to Jerusalem 
to come and to go without much harm or hindrance. 

In the eleventh century, however, this was all changed. 
A new race, called Turks, then appeared from the wilds 
of central Asia, became converted to Mohammedanism, 
and took the government of those lands into their own 



PILGRIMAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 231 

hands. They were a rude, fierce people, very unhke the 
cultured Arabs. They showed the greatest contempt for 
the Christians and their religion. Pilgrims ^^^ ^^^^^ 
who returned from Jerusalem told of many ^^^^ 
outrages which the Turks were committing 
on the Christians and on their holy places. The result 
was a great outburst of indignation in Western Europe. 

The Turks also were a more warlike people than the 
Arabs of that day, and within a short time they had 
won lands from the Eastern Empire which the Arabs 
had never been able to conquer. The safety of Con- 
stantinople itself was threatened. "From Jerusalem 
to the Aegean Sea," wrote the Eastern Emperor, "the 
Turkish hordes have mastered all. Their galleys sweep 
the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and threaten 
the imperial city itself. " 

To meet this danger, the Emperor wrote to the Pope 
asking for aid against the Turks. Quieter times had 
now come in the West, and rulers and peoples The 
were in a mood to grant this request. Reli- Emperor 
gious zeal, love of adventure, and the hope of 
winning rich lands and booty alike urged them to this 
step. The result was that great movement, productive 
of many unforeseen results, which we call the Crusades. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. In what ways are the visits which Americans now make to 

foreign lands like medieval pilgrimages? In what ways 
are they unlike? 

2. Find out what you can about Saint Thomas of Canterbury 

and the pilgrimages to his tomb. 

3. Imagine yourself a pilgrim going to the Holy Land, and 

describe your adventures. 

4. Eead an account of Mohammed and the religion which he 

founded. 

5. In what countries is Mohammedanism today the chief 

religion ? 



XXX 
THE FIRST CRUSADE 

Points to be Noted 

Pope Urban 11. calls the First Crusade; date; preparations 
for it. 

Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless set out; their fol- 
lowers destroyed. 

The princes make ready; their march to Constantinople; their 
wonder at its riches; they cross into Asia Minor. 

Letter from a Crusader; he tells of his gains; the siege of 
Antioch; sufferings of the Crusaders; their victories over 
the Turks. 

Finding of the Holy Lance; the Crusaders arrive before Jeru- 
salem; they capture the city; date; treatment of its 
defenders; the Crusaders' vows fulfilled. 

Pope Urban II. called a council of clergy and nobles 
to meet at Clermont, in France, in 1095; and to them 
he presented the request of the Eastern Emperor for aid. 

Most of those present were French, so Urban, who was 
himself a Frenchman, spoke to them in their own tongue. 
. He told them of the danger to Constantinople 

Clermont and of the sad state of Jerusalem, while the 
western peoples were quarreling and fighting 
among themselves. In all that region, he said. Chris- 
tians had been led off into slavery, their homes laid 
waste, and their churches overthrown. Then he 
appealed to the pride of his hearers, and urged them to 
rescue the Holy Sepulchre of Christ from the hands of 
the Mohammedans. 

"Christ himself," he cried, "will be your leader when 
you fight for Jerusalem! Let your quarrels cease, and 
turn your arms against the accursed Turks. In this 

232 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 233 

way you will return home victorious, and laden with the 
wealth of your foes; or, if you fall in battle, you will 
receive an everlasting reward!" To this p^^p^ urban 
appeal the Council, with one accord, made ^jJJ|^^g 
answer: "It is the will of God! It is the will 
of God!" From all sides they hastened to give in their 
names for the holy war. Each person who promised to 
go was given a cross of red cloth, which he was to wear 
upon his breast going to the 
Holy Land, and on his back V 

returning. To those who " took ^^ 

the cross," the name "Cru- ATvk 

saders" was given, from the ^^m \ 

Latin word which means cross. (^/ j^m 

The winter following the /W |^| 

Council was spent in getting i^MJ-/ ^^M^ (V^ 
ready for the Crusade. All //f fif ^^^^^^f 
classes showed the greatest / £ ^^^^^K 
zeal. Preachers went about /^ ^^^ErAifflto^ 

among the people calling upon "H^^^^^^ 

rich and poor, noble and peas- l^H^^^^ 

ant alike, to help free the Holy ^L^^^^^wt^ 

Land. Whole villages, towns, ii^^^^^^^m>>\ 

and cities were emptied of their "'^^^^^^^^^^ 

inhabitants to join the Crusade. ^ crusader 

Many sold all they had to get 

the means to go; and thieves, robbers, and other wicked 
men promised to leave their wickedness and aid in 
rescuing the tomb of Christ Jesus from the infidels. 

The time set for the starting of the Crusade was the 
early summer of the year 1096. But the common people 
could not wait so long. Under a monk named crusade of 
Peter the Hermit, and a poor knight called **»^p^**p*^ 
Walter the Penniless, great companies from Germany 



234 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

and France set out before that time. They had almost 
no money, they were unorganized, and there was no 
discipline or obedience in the multitude. The route 
which they took was down the River Danube, through 
the kingdoms of the Hungarians and Bulgarians, and so 
to Constantinople. Few of the people or their leaders 
had any idea of the distance, and as each new cit}^ 
came in sight many cried out: "Is this Constantinople? " 

In Hungary and Bulgaria they were attacked because 
they plundered the country as they passed through. 
Its and many were slain. When they reached 

failure Constantinople, some cf the unruly company 

set fire to buildings near the city, while others stripped 
off sheets of lead from the roofs of churches to sell to 
Greek merchants. The Emperor hastened to get rid 
of his unwelcome guests by sending them across into 
Asia Minor. There within a few months Walter and 
most of his followers were slain by the Turks, and the 
expedition came to a sorrowful end. 

Meanwhile the princes from France, Germany, and 

Italy were making ready their expeditions. While some 

Norman lords of Southern Italy were engaged 

princes in one of their many wars, a messenger came 

make ready , • , i , i 

to them with the news that countless warriors 
of France had started on the way to Jerusalem, and 
invited them to join the expedition. 

"What are their weapons, what their badge, what 
their war-cry?" asked one of the Normans. 

"Our weapons," replied the messenger, "are those 
best suited to war; our badge, the cross of Christ; our 
war-cry, 'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!' 

When he heard these words, the Norman tore from 
his shoulders his costly cloak, and wiLh his own hands 
he made crosses from it for all who would follow him 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 



235 



to the Holy Land. There he became one of the most 
famous and renowned of the Crusaders; and his followers 
showed that they could be as brave, as enterprising, and 
as skillful in fighting for the Holy Land as they had been 
before in fighting for lands and goods in France, in Eng- 
land, and in Italy. 




CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH 



The Crusaders set out in five different companies. 
The first started in August, 1096; the last did not join 
the others, near Constantinople, until the They march 

rTM • J to Constan- 

next summer. Ihe companies were made up tinopie 
of trained and armed knights, with chosen 
leaders, and they had made careful preparations for 
the expedition. They did not suffer so severely, there- 
fore, as did the poor ignorant people led by Walter the 
Penniless. It was only after many hardships, however, 
that the Crusaders finally arrived at Constantinople. 
In the lands north of the Alps, there were at that time 
none of the vast and richly ornamented churches and 
other buildings which later arose; all were poor, and 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



lacking in stateliness and beauty. Constantinople, 
however, was the most beautiful city of the world; so 
^ . , the siffht of it filled the Crusaders with awe 

splendor • • a r\ . . . ,, 

of Con- and admiration. " Oh, how great a city it is ! 

stantinople pi- i <i i i 

wrote one of their number; ' how noble and 
beautiful! What wondrously wrought monasteries and 
palaces are therein! What marvels everywhere in 
street and square! It would be tedious to recite its 
wealth in all precious things, in gold and silver, in cloaks 




ncoomofJerusaum 
-Route op fKurCRiiMDC 
^Crusade OP Richard 
THEboN Hearted 



« ^A*--^ 



MAP OF THE CRUSADES 



of many shapes, and saintly relics. For to this place 
ships bring all things that man may require." 

Now that these sturdy warriors of the West were 
actually in Constantinople, the Greek Emperor began 
to fear lest they might prove more troublesome to his 
empire than the Turks themselves. 

"Some of the Crusaders," wrote the Emperor's 
daughter, "were guileless men and women marching 
in all simplicity to worship at the tomb of Christ. But 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 237 

there were others of a more wicked kind. Such men 
had but one object, and this was to get possession of 
the Emperor's capital." 

After much suspicion on both sides, and many dis- 
putes, the Emperor got the "Franks," as the Crusaders 
were called, safely away from the city and over ^^^^ ^^^^^ 
into Asia Minor. There at last they met the J5[«^^sia 
Turks. At first the latter rushed joyously 
into battle, dragging ropes with which to bind the 
Christians captive; but soon they found that the"Franks" 
were more than a match for them. The city of Nicaea 
was soon taken, and the Crusaders pressed on to other 
and greater victories. 

Letter-writing was not nearly so common in those 
days as it is now; but some of the Crusaders wrote 
letters home, telling of their deeds. A few ^^^^^^ 
of these have come down to us across the g^^^^^^. 
centuries; and in order that you may learn 
what the Crusaders were thinking and feeling, as well 
as what they were doing, one of these is given here. 
The writer was a rich and powerful noble, and the letter 
was written while the army was laying siege, with batter- 
ing rams and siege towers, to the strongly walled city 
of Antioch. 

Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, to his dear 

children, and to all his vassals of all ranks, — his greeting and blessing: 

You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I send 

left me before Antioch safe and unharmed, and through 

*i J J. J.1- J. He tells of 
God's grace m the greatest prosperity. Already at that his gains 

time we had been continuously advancing for twenty- 
three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You may know 
for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many other kinds of 
riches I now have twice as much as your love had wished for me 
when I left you. 

You have certainly heard that, after the capture of the city of 



238 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Nicaea, we fought a great battle with the faithless Turks, and by 
God's aid conquered them. Next we conquered for the Lord all the 
Sultanate of Roum, and afterwards Cappadocia. Thence, con- 
tinually following the wicked Turks, we drove them through the midst 
of Armenia, as far as the great river Euphrates. Having left all 
their baggage and beasts of burden on the bank, they fled across the 
river into Arabia. 

Some of the bolder of the Turkish soldiers, however, entered Syria 
and hastened by forced marches, night and day, to enter the royal 

city of Antioch before our approach. The whole army 
of Antioch ^^ God, learning this, gave due praise and thanks to the 

all-powerful Lord. Hastening with great joy to Antioch, 
we besieged it, and had many conflicts there with the Turks. 
Seven times we fought, with the fiercest courage and under the 
leadership of Christ, against the citizens of Antioch and the innum- 
erable troops which were coming to its aid. In all these seven 
battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered, and assuredly 
killed an innumerable host of them. In those battles, indeed, and in 
very many attacks made upon the city, many of our brethren and 
followers were killed, and their souls were borne to the joys of Paradise. 

In fighting against these enemies of God and of our own, we have 
by God's grace endured many sufferings and innumerable evils up to 
Sufferings ^^^ present time. Many have already exhausted all 
of the their resources in this very holy expedition. Very many 

of our Franks, indeed, would have met death from 
starvation, if the mercy of God, and our money, had not helped 
them. Before the city of Antioch, and indeed throughout the whole 
winter, we suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold and 
great torrents of rain. What some say about the impossibility of 
bearng the heat of the sun throughout Syria is untrue, for the winter 
here is very similar to our winter in the West. 

When the Emir of Antioch — that is, its prince and lord — perceived 
that he was hard pressed by us, he sent his son to the prince who 
Victories holds Jerusalem, and to the prince of Damascus, and to 

over the three other princes. These five Emirs, with 12,000 

picked Turkish horsemen, suddenly came to aid the in- 
habitants of Antioch. We, indeed, ignorant of this, had sent many of 
our soldiers away to the cities and fortresses; for there are one hundred 
and sixty-five cities and fortresses throughout Syria which are in our 
power. But a little before they reached the city, we attacked them 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 239 

at three leagues' distance, with seven hundred soldiers. God surely 
fought for us against them; for on that day we conquered them and 
killed an innumerable multitude; and we carried back to the army 
more than two hundred of their heads in order that the people might 
rejoice on that account. 

These things which I write to you are only a few, dearest, of the 
many deeds which we have done. And because I am not able to tell 
you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to care- 
fully watch over your land, to do your duty as you ought to your 
children and your vassals. You will certainly see me just as soon as 
I can possibly return to you. Farewell, 

The capture of Antioch was the hardest task that 
the Crusaders had to perform, and it was not until three 
months later that the city was finally safe in their hands. 
Many of the Crusaders became discouraged meanwhile 
and started for home. 

At this trying time, a priest declared that it had been 
revealed to him in a dream, thrice repeated, that the 
head of the spear which had pierced our 
Lord's side lay buried near one of the altars the Hofy 
of a church near by; and it was further re- 
vealed, he said, that if this was found and borne at the 
head of the army, victory would surely follow. After 
long search, and much prayer and fasting, the "Holy 
Lance" was found. Then there was great joy and new 
courage among the Christians; and when next they 
marched against the Turks, the Crusaders fought more 
fiercely than ever. 

"Thanks to the Lord's lance," writes one of their 
number, "none of us was wounded, — no, not so much 
as by an arrow. I, who speak these things, saw them 
for myself, since I was bearing the Lord's lance. " 

After Antioch had fallen, the Crusaders were free to 
march on to Jerusalem. There men and animals suf- 
fered much from lack of food and water. "Many 



240 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

lay near the dried-up springs," says an old writer, 

*' unable to utter a cry because of the dryness of their 

tongues, and stretched out their hands to 

Crusaders >> a • i 

before thosc whom they saw had water. Again the 

Jerusalem . . . . i • i 

priests saw visions, and it was proclaimed 
that if the army marched barefoot around the city for 
nine days, the city would fall. 

So a procession was formed, and the Crusaders marched 
around the city, with priests and bishops at their head, 
chanting hymns and prayers as they went. The Mo- 
hammedans mocked 
at them from the 
walls, and some beat 
a cross, crying out : 

'* Look, Franks! It 
is the holy cross on 
which your Christ 
was slain!" 

After this the chiefs a machine for hurling stones 
ordered an attack on 

the city from two sides. The Mohammedans 
thfcuy^** were beaten back from the walls by the 
^^^''' showers of stones from the hurling machines, 

and blazing arrows carried fire to the roofs of the build- 
ings. Battering rams broke openings in the solid walls, 
and by means of scaUng ladders the Christians swarmed 
upon the ramparts. 

At last the city fell. Jerusalem— the holy city, 
which held the tomb of Christ— was once more in the 
hands of the Christians. But what a terrible day was 
that! How little of the meek and just spirit of Christ 
did his followers show! 

*'When our men had taken the city, with its walls 
and towers," writes one of the Crusaders, '* there were 




THE FIRST CRUSADE 241 

things wondrous to be seen. For some of the enemy 
(and this is a small matter) were deprived of their 
heads; others, riddled through with arrows, 
were forced to leap down from the towers; of the 

inhabitants 

and others, alter long torture, were burned 
in the flames. In all the streets and squares there w^ere 
to be seen piles of heads and hands and feet; and along 
the public ways foot and horse alike made passage over 
the bodies of the slain." 

Thus the Crusaders fulfilled their vow to "wrest the 
Holy Sepulchre from the infidel." But at what a cost 
of lives, both Christian and Mohammedan; 

• «. 1 1 1 rv ' 1 TheCrusa- 

oi agonies oi battle, and sufiermgs on the ders'vow 
way; of women made widows and children 
left fatherless! "Blessed are the merciful, for they 
shall obtain mercy," said Christ. This teaching, alas! 
the Crusaders seemed not to know. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Imagine yourself a boy or girl at the Council of Clermont, 

and write an account of the calling of the Crusade. 

2. Did men like Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless do 

more good than harm to the Crusade? Why? 

3. What other motives besides zeal for religion influenced men 

to go on the Crusade? (Read Count Stephen's letter 
again.) 

4. Study the picture on page 240, and find out how a hurling 

machine worked. 

5. Make a list of the things for which we should praise the 

Crusaders, and then make a list of their defects. 



XXXI 

THE CRUSADE OF 
RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 

Points to be Noted 

How the Crusaders organized their conquests; how Palestine 

was protected against the Mohammedans. 
Failure of the Second Crusade. 
Character of Saladin; his capture of Jerusalem; date; how he 

treated the Christians. 
Preparations for the Third Crusade; the three great rulers who 

took part; death of Frederick Barbarossa; failure of the 

German expedition. 
Character of Kichard the Lion-Hearted; route taken by Eichard 

and Philip; how Acre was taken; why the Crusade failed; 

Eichard's captivity, ransom, and death. 
Object of the Fourth Crusade; date; its results; why the Cru- 
sading movement came to an end. 

The Crusaders organized their conquests in the Holy 
Land by forming them into a feudal kingdom, called 
The king- the kingdom of Jerusalem. Most of the 
jer'lJsa/em Crusadcrs then prepared to return to their 
founded homes. Only those who had secured feudal 
lordships in Palestine remained behind. If the Mo- 
hammedans had been united at that time, they might 
easily have driven the Christians into the sea. But the 
Mohammedans were quarreling among themselves, and 
besides they had learned to fear the mail-clad "Franks." 

The Christians were thus given time to prepare their 
defenses. Huge castles were everywhere built to pro- 
its defenses tcct their lauds. New companies of Crusad- 
prepared ^^^^ ^jg^^ began to arrive, to take the place of 
those who had returned home; and soon merchants from 
the Italian cities settled there for the purpose of trade. 

242 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 



243 



Three special "military orders" were formed to pro- 
tect the Holy Land, These were called the Knights 
Hospitallers, the Knights Templars, and the ^j^^ ^j^^^^ 
Teutonic Knights. The members of these ^^^^^^^^ 
orders were both monks and knights. They 
were bound, like the monks, by vows of poverty, chas- 
tity, and obedience; but they were also knights, engaged 
in a perpetual crusade against the infidel. The Hos- 
pitallers wore a white cross on a black mantle; the 
Templars a red cross on a white mantle; and the Teutonic 
Knights a black cross 
on a white mantle. 
These military orders 
became very powerful 
and wealthy, and 
helped a great deal to 
keep the Holy Land in 
the hands of the Chris- 
tians. 

About forty years 
after the First Crusade, 
occurred a Second Cru- 
sade (1147-1149), which 
was caused by the news 

that the Turks had conquered part of the kingdom of 
Jerusalem. Two kings — Conrad III. of Germany and 
Louis VII. of France — took part in this Crusade, but they 
accomplished very little. 

After another forty years, rumors began to reach 
Europe of a great Mohammedan leader who had arisen 
in Egypt, and was threatening Palestine with Rise of 
new danger. He was called Saladin, and 
was one of the greatest rulers the Mohammedans 
ever had. He was foremost in battle, and was wise 




KNIGHT TEMPLAR 



244 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

and far-sighted in council. When he was victorious 
he dealt generously with his enemies, and when he 
was defeated he was never cast down. He was simple 
in his habits, just and upright in his dealings, and true 
to his promises. He was, in short, as chivalrous a 
warrior, and as sincere a believer in his faith, as any of 
the Christian knights against whom he fought; and his 
power was soon grown so great that he could attack 
them from all sides. 

"So great is the multitude of the Saracens and Turks," 
wrote one of the Christians, "that from the city of Tyre, 
which they are besieging, they cover the face of the 
earth as far as Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of 
ants. " 

When at last the Christians marched out to battle, 

they were overthrown with terrible slaughter. The 

King of Jerusalem and the Grand Master of 

He captures , ™, , ^ i* . i 

Jerusalem the Tcmplars were among the captives taken. 

Three months later, Saladin laid siege to 

Jerusalem itself. For two weeks the city held out, 

but at the end of that time it was forced to surrender. 

The mercy which Saladin now showed to the con- 
quered Christians was in strange contrast to the cruelty 
which the Crusaders had displayed. There was no 
slaughter now such as had occurred ninety years before. 
The greater number of the defeated party were allowed 
to go free, on paying a ransom. The churches, however, 
were all changed into Mohammedan mosques. 

When news of these events reached Europe, it caused 

great excitement. The King of England, who was called 

Richard the Lion-Hearted, took the cross 

The Third , , 

Crusade and prepared to go on a new crusade. King 

Philip Augustus of France promised to join 

him; and the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 



245 



so called on account of his red beard, also took the vow 
to go. These were the three most powerful rulers of 
Europe, and the movement which they set on foot prom- 
ised to be one of the greatest that the world had 

ever seen. 

The Emperor 
Frederick, in spite 
of his ^ ^^ , 

Death of 
SeventV Frederick 
Barbarossa 

years, 

was the first to 
start. He led his 
army by the 
Danube route, 
and except for 
one battle which 
he had to fight 
with the Eastern 
Emperor, all went 
well until the 
army reached Asia 
Minor. There, 
alas! the old 
Emperor was 
drowned, while 
swimming a river 
one hot day, to 
refresh himself 
and shorten his 
way. After that 
the German army went to pieces, most of its members 
losing their lives in the mountains and deserts of Asia 
Minor, or being cut down by Turkish soldiers. 

Richard the Lion-Hearted is one of the most interest- 




RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 

From the figure on his tomb 



246 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Character 
of Richard 
the Lion- 
Hearted 



ing, and also one of the most typical, of the Crusaders. 

The Crusade appealed alike to his love of adventure 
and to his devotion to religion. A chron- 
icler tells us that he was "tall, well built, and 
with hair midway between red and yellow." 

He loved to hunt, to sing, to make verses, and to con- 
quer other knights in "tournaments" or in real battles. 

His strength and military skill were famed throughout 

Western Europe. But he 

was a warrior and a 

knight, rather than a wise 

king. He neglected and 

misgoverned his kingdom 

of England ; and even as a 

warrior, it must be con- 
fessed, he was guilty of 

some acts of cruelty 

which were not in keeping 

with the highest ideals of 

knighthood. 

Philip and Richard 

profited by the experience 
of those who 

Departure 

of Richard had ffOUC On 

and Philip ^ 

the Crusades 
before them, and when they were ready to start they did 
not attempt to go by the long land route down the 
Danube valley. Instead they resolved to go by water, 
and took ship from Marseilles, in Southern France. From 
the beginning, however, things went wrong. Richard and 
Philip were very jealous of each other, and could not get 
along together. Philip was only half-hearted in the Cru- 
sade, and longed to be back in France; and Richard allowed 
himself to be turned aside for a time to other things. 




SHIELD OF RICHARD 

During the Crusades knights began the 
practice of painting emblems on their 
shields, banners, etc., to distinguish one 
from another. The "lions" which Rich- 
ard used became the "arms" of England 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 247 



When they reached the Holy Land, they found the 
Christians laying siege to Acre, one of the seaports 
near Jerusalem. The siege had already lasted ^.^^^ 
more than a year, and for several months J«djaiiof 
longer it dragged on. It was a dreary time 
for the Christians. "The Lord is not in the camp," 
wrote one of their number; "there is none that doeth 
good. The leaders strive 
with one another, while 
the lesser folk starve, and 
have none to help. The 
Turks are persistent in 
attack, while our knights 
skulk within their tents. 
The strength of Saladin 
increases daily, but daily 
does our army wither 
away." 

The fame of Richard 
as a warrior soon put new 
spirit into the besiegers. 
Almost daily he rode 
around the walls of Acre, 
defying the Mohammed- 
ans and directing the work 
of the siege. He ordered 
stone-hurling machines 

to be put in operation, and showed the besiegers 
where to place battering-rams, movable towers, and 
other "engines" to batter down the walls and secure an 
entrance into the city. In the end these measures 
were successful and Acre fell— chiefly owing to the skill 
and daring of King Richard. 

Soon after the fall of Acre, King Philip returned to 




MOVABLE TOWER 



248 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

France, leaving Richard to carry on the war without 
his aid. But quarrels among the leaders continued, 
Failure of and they could not agree on anything. It 
the Crusade j^ ^^-^ ^j^^^ Richard ouc day rode up a hill 
within sight of Jerusalem, but held his shield before his 
face that he might not look upon the sacred city which 
he could not rescue. The army was obliged to retreat, 
and the Holy City was left in the hands of the "infidels." 

Richard was now obliged to return to England; so he 
made a truce with Saladin for three years, during which 
time Christians might freely visit Jerusalem. When he 
departed from Syria, he left behind him a great reputa- 
tion for his bravery. It is said that the fear which he 
aroused among the Mohammedans was so great that 
when their children wept they would say to them: "Be 
quiet, the King of England is coming." 

To avoid enemies on his way home, Richard attempted 
to pass secretly through Germany, almost alone. But 
Richard's he was recognized by a lord whose enmity 
ransom^' ^c had gained while on the Crusade, and was 
and death ^akcu prisoner. For a time the place of his 
confinement was not known to his own people. In 
after years, men told a story of how his favorite 
"minstrel," Blondel, wandered through Germany, 
singing beneath the walls of every castle a song known 
only to the King and to Blondel himself. At last 
he was rewarded by hearing the answering verse in 
Richard's clear voice, and he knew that he had found 
his master's prison. 

Richard's enemies drove a hard bargain with him. 
It was only after fourteen months of captivity, and on 
the payment of an enormous ransom, that he was 
released. He was never able to return to the Holy 
Land to renew the Crusade, as he had intended. He 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 249 



was detained at home by troubles in his own lands, 
and by war with King Philip. He died at last, in 1199, 
of an arrow wound which he received while fighting 
in France. 

"What have I done to you, that 
you should slay me?" asked the 
dying King when the man who 
had shot the bolt was led captive 
before him. 

"You have slain my father and 
two of my brothers," was the reply. 
"Torture me as you will, I shall 
die gladly since I have slain you." 
On hearing this answer, Richard 
pardoned the man and ordered 
that he be set free. This was 
characteristic of his chivalry and 
knightly generosity. 

The Crusades continued for 
about a hundred years after the 
death of Richard the ^he Fourth 
Lion-Hearted. The crus^de 
Fourth Crusade, which 
took place between the years 1202 
and 1204, was the most important 
of these later expeditions. The 
citizens of Venice were the leaders 
in this, and to further their trading 
interests, it was directed against the 
Christian city of Constantinople, 
and not against the Turks. As a 
result of it the Eastern Empire passed for fifty years 
into the hands of Latin Christians, and the Venetians 
secured many islands in the eastern Mediterranean Sea 




ARMOR OF THE TIME 
OF KING RICHARD 

Made of scales of iron over- 
lapping one another 



250 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

and important trading privileges. Largely as a result 
of these gains, Venice became the chief center of the 
trade which now began to bring into Europe the spices 
and other products of far-distant Asia. 

There were several later Crusades, but these accom- 
plished very little. Gradually the Crusading movement 
died out, though pilgrims long continued to 
crusading go peacefully to the Holy Land. Freer access 

movement ^^^ nii iiii i 

was now allowed them to the holy places, and 
it no longer seemed so important that the Sepulchre 
of Christ should be rescued from the hands of the 
infidel. Perhaps men came to see, also, that it does not 
make so much difference who rules the land where 
Christ lived and died, but that the great question is 
whether Christ lives and rules in the hearts of those 
who profess to follow him. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Why was the feudal plan of government a good one for the 

lands won by the Crusaders in Palestine? 

2. In what ways were the "military orders" better defenders of 

Palestine than ordinary Crusaders? 

3. Eead Sir Walter Scott's account of an imaginary interview 

between King Richard and Saladin {The Talisman, ch. 
xxvii). 

4. Was the Fourth Crusade a true Crusade? Give reasons for 

your answer. 

5. Why do men not go on Crusades nowadays? 



XXXII 
RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 

Points to be Noted 

Introduction of new products, manufactures, and inventions 
from the East; love of travel and effects of travel on the 
minds of men; increase in trade; growth of cities. 

Location of Venice; how the city grew rich; Venetian terri- 
tories; trade routes to the East. 

Description of a Venetian ship; its cargo; homeward voyage; 
the beautv of Venice; church of Saint Mark; trade routes 
to the north and west. 

Eivalry of Venice and Genoa; victory of Venice; growth of 
Atlantic seaports later. 

Although the Crusades failed to drive the Moham- 
medans out of the Holy Land— where, indeed, they 
remain to this day — they nevertheless had some very 
important results. During this period a Products 
great number of new natural products and from the 
manufactures were introduced into Europe 
from Mohammedan lands. These included sugar and 
sugar-cane; buckwheat, rice, garlic, and hemp; the 
orange, watermelon, lemon, and apricot; muslins, 
damask, satin, and velvet; and dye-stuffs of various 
sorts. From the East came the use of Arabic numerals, 
in place of the old clumsy Roman numerals which had 
so long been employed. The windmills, which are now 
so common in certain parts of Europe and America, 
were first introduced from Mohammedan countries. 
Beautiful decorations for houses, including the handsome 
rugs and carpets which are still so much sought after, 
also came to us as a result of intercourse with the Arabian 
and Persian East. Finally, it was from the East that 



251 



252 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

medieval Europe got its fondness for the use of spices in 
its food and drink, which after many years led Colum- 
bus to set out on his search for an easier way to the 
East Indies by sailing westward across the Atlantic 
Ocean. 

Two results of the Crusades should here be separately 
mentioned. The first of these was the increase in travel- 
Travel ing which they produced, and which was 
broadens especially important in broadening the minds 
"'*°'*^ of the men of Western Europe. Before the 
Crusades, each district lived to itself, and its inhabi- 
tants rarely heard what was going on in the rest of the 
world. During the Crusades this isolation was broken 
down. For nearly two hundred years men went and 
came on these great expeditions, seeing strange coun- 
tries and strange peoples, and learning new customs. 
After the Crusades had come to an end, men still con- 
tinued to travel more freely than they had done in the 
earlier period. In this way they came to 
arouses learn much more of the world than had been 
known of it for some centuries, and their 
curiosity for yet further knowledge was aroused. 

More immediately important than this love of travel 
was the second result spoken of above — namely, the 
Increase in great increase in trade which the Crusades 
trade produced. It was the Crusades chiefly which 

caused the revival of commerce which we have discussed 
in the chapter on Life in the Medieval Towns, and 
which we saw was so important in building up rich 
and powerful cities, and enabling them to gain their 
rights of self-government. The cities which profited 
most in this way were naturally those in Italy; and 
of these Italian cities it was Venice and Genoa which 
made the greatest gain. 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 253 

Venice is sometimes called the Queen of the Adriatic. 
It is located on a number of small islands in the Adriatic 
Sea, near the mouth of the River Po. It first Growth of 
became a town in the troublous days of the 
German invasions, when people fled to the shelter 
of its shores to escape the dangers which threatened 
them on the mainland. At first its inhabitants were 
fishermen and makers of salt; then gradually a little 
trade sprang up. Venetian vessels began to carry 
pilgrims to the Holy Land, and along with returning 
pilgrims they brought back some of the manufactures 
and products of the East. When the Crusades came, 
the Venetians made a great profit in carrying these 
armed pilgrims to and from Palestine. In some of the 
towns which were captured by the Crusaders, the differ- 
ent Italian cities were given certain sections in which 
their merchants could establish themselves and carry 
on their trade under the rule of men from their own city. 
One whole section of Constantinople was thus given to 
the Venetians, when that city was taken by the Cru- 
saders; and in addition they were given Crete, and 
Rhodes, and many other islands in the Eastern Med- 
iterranean. Thus Venice came to have an extensive 
colonial empire, and a rich trade with Eastern lands. 

The goods which the Venetians sought came chiefly 
from the Far East — that is, from India and China. 
The spices, silks, and other goods of those . 

countries either came by native caravans of routes to 

•^ the Far East 

camels and horses across the vast deserts and 
plains of Central Asia; or else they were brought in small 
Mohammedan vessels through the Indian Ocean, and 
up the Persian Gulf or the Red Sea. In either event, 
the goods would probably be a year or two on the way, 
before they reached the shores of the Mediterranean. 



254 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Let us picture to ourselves a Venetian vessel waiting 
for its cargo of Eastern goods. It has brought woolen 
goods and grain from Europe to sell in the 
East, and is lying in the harbor of some seaport 
in Palestine, now under Mohammedan 
rule once more. The vessel is small, and but partly 
decked over; perhaps it is propelled by oars as well as 
by sails. It is likely that we may see in the bows and 



A 

Venetian 

vessel 




VENETIAN MERCHANT SHIP 

From an old engraving 

amidships a few small cannon, which began to be used 
in Europe with the introduction of gunpowder in the 
fourteenth century. These are puny weapons compared 
with the giant guns of later days, for they can send 
their stone balls not much farther than a good bowman 
can shoot. Nevertheless their noise and smoke make 
them formidable, and we shall be glad of their presence 
in case we meet a pirate vessel. 

Here, at last, come the goods for our cargo — great 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 



^55 



bales and bundles of them. A spicy and sweet-scented 
odor is over everything; for the bales contain sugar, 
cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, ginger, pepper, ^^^ ^^^^^ 
and the like.* Some smaller parcels are espe- 
cially fragrant, for they contain musk and other per- 
fumes. Here are parcels containing camphor, and 
there are caskets full of jewels and precious stones. 
Yonder bales contain carpets, rugs, and rich silks. 




THE GRAND CANAL OF VENICE 

Altogether it is a goodly cargo, and we may be sure its 
owners will reap a great profit when once its precious 
wares are safely brought to market. 

When our cargo is all embarked, the passengers, who 
are mostly returning pilgrims, go on board, and with 
oars and sails the vessel begins its homeward Homeward 
journey. It does not go alone, but in com- """^^^ ^ 
pany with a number of others, for the sake of better 

*Tea, coffee, and chocolate were not introduced into Europe until 
two centuries after the time of Columbus. 



^56 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




PLAZA OF SAINT :MARK, VENICE 



protection against the Mohammedan pirates. From 
Palestine to Venice is more than 1,500 miles, or 
about half the distance from America to Europe. 
With the slow vessels of that time we may be sure that 
the voyage will take us from three weeks to a month of 
wearisome traveling. 

At last, however, the voyage is ended, and we dis- 
embark on the shores of the Grand Canal, shaped like 
, a letter "S, " which divides the islands of 

Beauty and . . 

wealth of Venice into two groups. What a marvelous 

Venice ... x t i m c 

City it is! It lies about three miles from the 
Italian shore, and the low-lying isles on which it 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 257 

rests are almost solidly covered with buildings. Far 
more numerous than its streets are the narrow winding 
canals which separate its islands one from another. 
Here ply the long narrow boats, called gondolas, which 
in Venice are still the principal means of getting about. 
Everywhere we see evidences of the wealth and power 
of the city, due to its secure position and its rich com- 
merce. Already those churches and palaces, which are 
today the delight of the traveler, have begun to appear. 
The chief of these is the great church of Saint Mark. 
Its domes and pinnacles, as well as the gold and rich 
colors of its mosaic pictures, made out of bits ^ 

, Church 

of glass and marble, show the influence of ofSaint 

• p /^ . Mark 

artists from Constantinople . The four statues 
of horses made of gilded bronze, which stand over the 
principal entrance to the building, were brought from 
Constantinople at the time of the Fourth Crusade. 
As we gaze in wonder and awe upon this vast building, 
and as we look about over this rich and populous city, 
we can understand something of the admiration which 
the Crusaders felt when they first beheld Constantinople. 
For now it is Venice, and not Constantinople, which 
enjoys the distinction of being the greatest and most 
beautiful city in the world; and it was the Crusades, 
and the commerce which they brought with them, which 
have produced the change. 

But we are forgetting our vessel's cargo. What 
becomes of those precious goods which have come with 
us from Palestine.^ Some of them, doubtless. Trade 
will remain in Italy; but most will be sent on the North 
horse and mule back over the passes of the ^^^ ^^^^ 
Alps, to find a market at good prices in the cities of France 
and Germany. Some part, also, will be reshipped into 
other Venetian vessels, and make the long and dan- 



258 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

gerous voyage, through the Mediterranean and the 
Atlantic Ocean, to Belgium, England, and other countries 
of the West. 

When such great profits were to be made in this trade, 
we may be sure that Venice was not free from the 
Rivair of rivalry of other cities. Her chief competitor 
Genoa ^^^ ^^^ Gcuoa, f amous to us as the birthplace of 
Christopher Columbus. Although this city 
lay far around on the other side of Italy — indeed, almost 
directly across from Venice — it was long able to dispute 
Avith Venice for the chief place in this trade with the 
East. For a time Genoa was able even to dispossess 
Venice of its trading privileges in Constantinople, and 
itself secure the chief part of the trade in the Black Sea 
and with the East. Long and disastrous wars followed, 
in which victory rested now with the Venetians, and now 
with the Genoese. Finally, about one hundred years 
before Columbus discovered America, the Venetians 
won a great victory over the Genoese fleet; and thence- 
forth their city controlled without question the Mediter- 
ranean Sea and the trade with the East. 

It was only later, after the ocean route to India had 

been discovered by the Portuguese, that this trading 

, , monopoly of the Venetians was disturbed, 

Growth of 1 , 

ports on the and ucwcr and yet greater centers of commerce 

Atlantic *^ ° 

sprang up on the shores of the Atlantic — at 
x\ntwerp in Belgium, at Amsterdam in Holland, and 
above all in the great English capital of London. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. What articles of food that we use daily were unknown to the 

people of Europe in the Middle Ages? 

2. In what other ways besides traveling can people of the 

l^resent time learn about the world? 

3. Compare a Venetian vessel with a modern steamship. 

4. Trace on the map Venice's trade routes on land and sea. 



XXXIII 
THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 

Points to be Noted 

How the geography of Asia came to be better known; travels of 
the Polo brothers; their reception at the court of Kublai 
Khan; the Khan's request to the Pope. 

The second visit to China; Marco Polo's life in the Khan's 
service; why the Polos were allowed to depart; their home- 
ward journey; the effect of Marco Polo's book of travels. 

Why the Norse discovery of America had no results. 

AVhy Europe was more interested in explorations in the fifteenth 
century; Gutenberg's invention of printing and its results. 

Portugal's part in the work of discovery; what Prince Henry 
the Navigator was seeking; the two theories of the world; 
progress of Portuguese explorations; work of Diaz; how 
Vasco de Gama reached India; date; the importance of bis 
discovery. 

One important result of the trade of Venice in the 
products of the Far East was that it led to a better 
knowledge of the geography of Asia. In part j^^^^^^^j 
this came through the reports given of the ^nowiedge 
different Asiatic countries by the caravan 
leaders who brought these goods to the shores of the 
Mediterranean. Still more did it come from the travels 
into the Far East of members of a noble Venetian, 
family named Polo. 

About seventy years after the Crusade of Richard 
the Lion-Hearted, two brothers of this family were 
established at Constantinople, carrying on ^j^^p^,^ 
trade. In the pursuit of their business they ^^^^^^^'"^ ^'^ 
traveled up into the Black Sea. Thence, led 
on partly by curiosity and partly by hope of gain, they 
traveled on and on, until at last they had crossed the 



260 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



whole of Central Asia, and arrived at the court of the 
Chinese Emperor, or Khan. The ruler of China at this 
time was an open-minded prince called Kublai Khan, 
and he made the brothers welcome in his land. It was 
the first time that he had ever seen Europeans, and he 
was delighted with the intelligence and politeness of 
his visitors. He listened eagerly to all that they had 

to tell of their part 
of the world; and 
at last he sent them 
back with a mes- 
sage to the Pope 
asking that one 
hundred mission- 
ary teachers be 
sent to instruct 
his people in Chris- 
tianity and the arts 
of Europe. 

It was nine years 
from the time that 
the Polo brothers 
left Europe to the 
time when they 
returned to Venice. They found that there was at that 
time trouble in the Church, so only two missionaries 
Their return wcrc appointed to accompany them back 
to the Khan's court. Even these two were 
so filled with dread that at the last moment they 
refused to go. The brothers Polo, however, resolved 
to return and explain the situation to the Khan; and 
with them one brother took his seventeen-year-old son, 
Marco Polo. 

It was in the year 1271 that the little party set out on 




KUBLAI KHAN 

From a Chinese engraving 



BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 



261 



the second trip to China. Almost four years passed 

before they were again safely at the court of Kublai 

Khan. There they were kindly received, ^^^^^ 

and Marco was taken into the employment f^^^^^jj^^*^ 

of the Khan. He soon learned to speak and 

to read several of the Asiatic languages, and was sent by 

the Khan on missions all over China, and even to Tibet 

and Burma. Wherever he went he 

took pains to observe the country and 

the ways of the people. His father 

and uncle, meanwhile, were busily 

engaged in gaining wealth in various 

ways. 

For many years the three Vene- 
tians remained thus employed in 
China. Often they wished to return 
to their own country, but Kublai 
Khan was so fond of them that he 
would not consent to their departure. 
At last a time came when it was 
necessary to send a princess of the 
Chinese court to be married to one of 
the Turkish rulers of Western Asia. 
The land journey was so long and 
dangerous that the Khan wished her to make the 
journey by sea; and, because of the knowledge which 
these Venetians had of seafaring, he reluctantly 
appointed them to accompany the princess on her 
voyage to her chosen husband. 

The party set sail from the coasts of China in the year 
1292. After long delays on account of storms they 
arrived at their destination in the Persian Gulf in 
1294. This was the first voyage ever undertaken by 
Europeans in what we now call the Pacific Ocean. 




MARCO POLO 

From an old 
engraving 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



The Venetian travelers arrived at their home after 
an absence of more than twenty years. They had 
Marc p 1 difficulty in getting their friends and relatives 
describes to rccognizc them, for they had long before 

their travels . ' ^ o 

been given up as lost. They brought back 
with them a rich store of diamonds, rubies, sapphires, 
and pearls, which they had sewn in the seams of their old 
shabby coats; and these excited almost as much wonder 
as the story of their adventures. Three years later 
Marco Polo was taken captive in a battle with the 
Genoese, and while he was held in prison he wrote out 
the story of their travels. His book for the first time 
told Europe of the vastness and wealth of China, of the 
richness of Java, Sumatra, and the Spice Islands, and 
of the great island kingdom of Japan. It was the 
first great advance in the knowledge of geography since 
the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans. 

We have already seen how, nearly three hundred 
years before this, the Northmen had discovered the 
Norse coast of North America in their adventurous 

orAmlrTca voyagcs iuto the Atlantic Ocean. Nothing 
orgotten permanent, however, had come from that dis- 
covery. Firearms and gunpowder were not then in use, 
and the Norsemen had great difficulty in beating off 
the hostile Indians. The compass and other aids to 
navigation were as yet unknown, so voyages into the 
open sea were much more difficult and dangerous than 
they later became. Besides all this, Europe was then 
too much disturbed and too much occupied at home to 
care for these distant enterprises of the barbarian 
Northmen. No permanent settlements were made by 
the Northmen in America, and it was only occasionally 
that a vessel would go thither from Greenland for a cargo 
of timber. After several hundred years, the settlements 



BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 



263 



in Greenland itself declined; and then, for a long period, 
all knowledge apparently of the Northmen's discovery 
of America was lost. 

In the fifteenth century the situation was changed. 
Gunpowder, together with the compass and other aids 
to navigation, had now been introduced into changes 
Europe from China and India, where they were fifteenth 
first discovered. There was more travel, also, ^®"*^"'"^ 
and more curiosity about foreign lands. There was a 
widespread demand for the spices and other goods of 
the East, and one city — Venice — had almost a monopoly 
of that profitable 
trade. Moreover, all 
the lands about the 
Eastern Mediterran- 
ean were now in the 
hands of a race of 
Turks (the Ottomans) 
who were even ruder 
and fiercer than those 
in the days of the 
Crusades ; and they 
began to interfere 

seriously with the caravan trade. What wonder, then, 
that some persons should begin to dream of reaching the 
rich lands of the Far East by new and untried routes? 

New ideas of all sorts, moreover, were now more 
easily spread about as a result of the invention of print- 
ing. Ever since men began to write, books i^^e^^i^^ 
had been made by the slow process of forming J^j^^j^g 
each letter separately with the pen. At 
length men discovered that letters and other characters 
could be cut upon a block of wood, and then many copies 
could be printed from this one block. In this way 




EARLY PRINTERS 



264 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

*' block books," as they were called, began to be made 
early in the fifteentli century. The trouble with these 
was that every page had to be engraved separately, 
and this proved such a task that only books of a very 
few pages were made in this way. 

Then it occurred to John Gutenberg, of Strasburg, 
Germany, that if he made separate types for the letters, 
he could use the same ones over and over again to form 
new pages; and if, instead of cutting the letters them- 
selves, he made moulds to produce them, he could cast 
his type in metal (which would be better than wood 
anyway), and from the one mould he could make as 
many of each letter as was necessary. 

In this way, printing from movable metal types was 
invented by Gutenberg, about the year 1450. It seems 
like a very small thing, when we tell about it, but it was 
one of the most important inventions that the world has 
ever seen. Soon, presses and printing offices were estab- 
lished all over Western Europe, printing Bibles and other 
books, and selling them so cheaply that almost every one 
could afford to buy. By this means knowledge of new 
ideas about geography, and of travels such as those of 
Marco Polo, were spread among all educated men; and 
this greatly helped to further the work of discovery. 

The little kingdom of Portugal took the lead in the 
search for a new route to India. This was largely due 
Work of to the efforts of a wise and capable prince 
H"nry the wliom wc Call " PHncc Hcury the Navigator." 
avigator jj^ ^^^ ^^^ himself a sailor, but his whole life 
was spent in sending out expeditions which gradually 
explored the western coast of Africa. He sought gold- 
dust and ivory from the barren coast of the Sahara 
desert; and he started, alas! the trade in African 
slaves captured on those shores. He also sought to 



BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 265 

spread the gospel of Christianity among the heathen, 
and perhaps he came at last to dream of the possibility 
of reaching India by sailing around the southern point of 
Africa. 

There were two theories of the world in those days. 
One held that the lands were great islands in a world 
of water; the other held that the oceans were ^ 

. . Two 

ffreat lakes in a world of land. If this last theories of 

" _ the world 

view was correct, of course there could be no 
sailing around Africa and so reaching the Indian Ocean. 
But there were some vague stories of men in the days of 
ancient Egypt who had sailed around Africa; so the 
other, and true, view had its followers. 

Gradually the Portuguese explorers crept down the 
western coast of Africa. Only after three attempts 
was Cape Bojador passed. When Prince Discoveries 
Henry died, thirty years later, the explorations por^^guese 
had nearly reached the point where the coast ^^^ ^^^^^ 
turns sharply to the eastward. Much disappointment 
was felt when, after tracing this coast for 1500 miles 
eastward, it was discovered that it again turned to the 
south. 

Now the work of exploration went on vigorously. 
In 1484 the mouth of the Congo River was passed. 
Two years later the Portuguese King sent out Diaz rounds 
Bartholomew Diaz with three small vessels, cood^ope 
under orders to follow the continent to its ^^*^^^ 
southern end. After passing the farthest known point, 
about 20 degrees south of the equator, Diaz was driven 
southward by heavy winds for thirteen days, without 
seeing land. When the storm ceased and he sought 
once more the coast, he found that his mission was 
accomplished. He had passed the southernmost point 
of Africa and could prove that from there on the coast 



266 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

turned northward. He had discovered 1200 miles of 
unknown coast. To the southernmost point of the conti- 
nent he gave the name of "Cape of Storms"; but upon 
his return the wise King said: 

"Nay, let it rather be called the Cape of Good Hope, 
for there is much reason to believe that we have now 
found the ocean route to the Indies." 

So it proved; for, twelve years later, a Portuguese 
captain, by sailing around this cape, at last succeeded 
vascoda in reaching the long sought shores of India. 
reacJfes This Captain was Vasco da Gama, whom the 

India (1498) j^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ -^^g^^ ^j^j^ ^^^^ VCSSels tO 

complete the remaining stages of the discovery. His 
voyage to India was a great feat of seamanship. The 
distance which he traveled was three or four times that 
to America, and the winds and currents were more 
baffling than those with which Columbus had to contend. 

After reaching Cape Verde, on the western shore of 
Africa, Da Gama struck boldly out for the Cape of 
Good Hope, and for nearly three months he was out 
of sight of land. On the east coast of Africa he found 
traders from India, who furnished him with a pilot 
across the Indian Ocean. He reached the great trading 
port of Calicut, on the western coast of India, just ten 
months and twelve days after he had left Lisbon. 

So, at last, the Portuguese arrived at the goal of 

their efforts, after sixty years of striving. From this 

time on, the trade of Venice declined, while 

Results , ^ ^ 

of his Portugal speedily grew rich from its control 

of the new route to India. It was a great 
event in the history of the world. Up to this time 
Europe had stood with its back to the Atlantic, looking 
toward the East. The Mediterranean Sea hitherto 
had been the center of the commerce and of the culture 



BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 267 

of the world. Now Europe began to face westward, 
and the nations which bordered on the Atlantic Ocean 
began to play the chief part both in commerce and in 
culture. 

The glory of Vasco da Gama's achievement, however, 
was somewhat dimmed by the fact that Christopher 
Columbus, six years before, had performed an even 
greater feat. While seeking to reach India by sailing 
westward, he had discovered the New World, which we 
call America. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Trace on the map (p. 268) the return voyage of the Polo 

family. How long would such a voyage take at the 
present time? 

2. Locate Tibet, Burma, Java, Sumatra, Spice Islands, Japan. 

3. Find out more about John Gutenberg. 

4. Trace on the map the explorations of the Portuguese sailors. 

5. Why was an ocean route to India better than a land route? 

6. Make a list of the things which led to explorations and dis- 

coveries in the fifteenth century. 



268 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




XXXIV 
THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 

Points to be Noted 

Time and place of Columbus's birth; his education. 

How he came to think of sailing westward; his life in Lisbon; 

ancient Greek ideas about the earth; the letter and chart 

from Toscanelli; for what Columbus deserves fame. 
Columbus's mistaken ideas; his efforts to get aid; why he had 

so much difficulty; how Queen Isabella became interested; 

the agreement with Columbus. 
Equipment of Columbus; inventions he used; his course to the 

West; fears and plots of his sailors. 
Signs of land; landing of Columbus; what he had discovered; 

how he was received in Sixain. 
Lands discovered on his last three voyages; what he believed 

about his discoveries; his death; what he had accomplished. 

Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America, 
was born in or near the Italian city of Genoa, about the 
year 1440. His father was a weaver of woolen ^^^^ ^^^ 
cloth. The boy Christopher learned Latin, g^^j^^^j^^^ 
mathematics, and astronomy, and became 
a skilled maker of maps and charts such as were used by 
sailors. In one of the brief accounts which he wrote 
of his life, he tells us that he became a sailor at an early 
age, and that he followed the sea for forty years. Much 
as we should like to know more, this is about all that we 
can find out concerning the early life and boyhood of this 
great man. 

When Columbus was an experienced sailor he went to 
live at Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Because of the 
explorations which the Portuguese were mak- coiumbus 
ing, this was then the chief center of geo- »^P»^t"^»i 
graphical knowledge. It was probably while he was 

269 



270 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

living there that Columbus first began to think of the 
possibility of reaching the coasts of Asia by sailing 
westward across the Atlantic. 

Ever since the days of the ancient Greeks, learned men 

had believed that the earth was a globe. The Greek 

writer Ptolemy had taught this in a book 

Greek ideas , . , , , i • i i i 

about which he wrote about geography; mdeed, long 

before that, the philosopher Aristotle, who 
was the teacher of Alexander the Great, had written: 
"It does not seem absurd to me to think that the regions 
about the Pillars of Hercules (that is, the Strait of Gib- 
raltar) are connected by the sea with India." 

In Columbus's own day a learned Italian named 
Toscanelli had sent to the King of Portugal a chart 
Toscaneiii's which he had made of the Atlantic Ocean. 
chart Q^ ^j^jg YiQ showed Europc at the eastern 

margin of that ocean, and China and Japan at its western 
edge. In a letter which he later sent to Columbus 
himself, along with a similar chart, he WTote: 

"Do not wonder that I call west the lands where the 
spices are; for if a person should sail continually west- 
ward, he would come to those parts of the earth where 
those lands lie." 

Also, in the very year that Columbus made his great 
voyage, a learned German constructed a globe which is 
still preserved showing the same ideas of geography. 
Here again we see Europe lying on one side of the 
Atlantic Ocean, and Asia on the other. 

Columbus's idea, therefore, that the earth was round, 
and that India could be reached by sailing westward. 
Credit due was not original with him, nor was it a new 
Columbus jjg^ ^^^y learned men had believed this, 
but no one had yet had the courage and the perseverance 
to put the idea to the test. Columbus's greatness lies in 



VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 271 

the fact that he first resolved to put this idea to the test ; 
and that, in spite of discouragement and obstacles, he 
persevered until he had proved that land could be reached 
by sailing boldly across the seas to the west. 

If Columbus had known that, instead of being only 
three thousand miles away, Asia was more than twelve 
thousand miles distant, and that the great 

a ~K-r 1 ,o ^ k ' ^ t Mistaken 

continents of JNorth and South America barred ideas about 

. the earth's 

the direct route to it, he might never have size 
attempted his westward voyage. But men in that day 
thought that the earth was considerably smaller than 
we now know it to be; and they also thought that Asia 
extended much farther to the eastward than it does. 
So Columbus thought that the westward route would 
be much shorter and easier than the one around the 
southern point of Africa, which the Portuguese were 
attempting; and he spent many weary years in trying 
to interest some government in his plan, so that he 
might get the ships and the money which he needed to 
put it into execution. 

First, Columbus tried to get aid for his voyage from 
the King of Portugal. But Portugal was then too 
much interested in the rapid progress which 

, . 1 • • if 1 . Columbus's 

was being made in its own plan lor reaching failure in 

. . Portugal 

India. The advisers of the Portuguese King 
reported that Columbus's plan was "visionary," espe- 
cially as Columbus's demands for reward in case he should 
succeed were very high. Nevertheless, the King was 
enough impressed with the plan to take the dishonorable 
step of secretly sending out some of his own captains to 
see whether anything could be accomplished by sailing 
directly to the westward. These captains, however, 
had no faith in the enterprise, and after sailing a little 
way they returned and reported that it could not be 



272 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

done. After that the Portuguese King refused to have 
anything further to do with the matter. 

Then Columbus turned to the court of Spain. Some 
of the Spanish councillors were favorable to his plan, 

but most were opposed to it. They quoted 
ki^s'p'^ki"^ texts of Scripture which, in their opinion, 

proved that one could not sail around the 
earth. Another reason for refusing aid, they urged was 
that Spain was very busy then in driving out the Moham- 
medan Moors, who for more than seven hundred years 
had held the southern part of that peninsula. 

After four years of waiting, Columbus sent his brother 
to England, to see whether the English King would not 

give him aid. Here also he was disappointed. 

He seeks aid ^ • i <. i i i 

in England Then, after another period ol delay, he pre- 

and France i<. • i i • c m • 

pared to go himself, with his family, into 

France, and lay his plan before the King of that country. 

Columbus was now an old and wearied man, and we 

can imagine the discouragement with which he set out on 

foot to cross the mountains into France. He 

Columbus 

at the had not gone tar when he stopped at a monas- 

monastery i « 

tery to ask for some bread and a cup oi water 
for his little boy Diego, whom he was taking with him. 
The head of the monastery became interested in him and 
in his project. After some talk, Columbus agreed to 
remain there for a few days, while the good monk wrote to 
the Queen urging her not to let slip this favorable oppor- 
tunity of beating the Portuguese in the race to the Indies. 
The Spanish King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, 
were now in the midst of their last campaign to drive 
Agreement the Moors out of Granada and out of their 

between . 

Columbus kingdom. The Queen especially was ready to 

and Queen '^ i p r-t i 

Isabella listen to Columbus's plans, and after Granada 

had fallen an agreement was made. Columbus was 



VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 



273 



appointed hereditary Admiral of all the lands which 
he might discover in the Atlantic Ocean, and he was to 
have one-tenth of all the gold, precious stones, spices, 
and other merchandise which might be obtained there. 
The Queen bore seven-eights of the cost of the expedi- 
tion, and Columbus was to find the money for the other 
eighth. 




DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS 

From an old engraving 

On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail, with three 
small ships called "caravels." The largest of these was 
but ninety feet long, or only about one-eighth coiumbus 
the length of the great ocean steamers which Augusts, 
now cross the Atlantic. The crews of the ^"^'^ 
three vessels numbered less than one hundred persons 
in all. 



274 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Ocean navigation, however, was not so uncertain as 
it had been in the days of the Northmen. Sailors by 
Improve- this time had the compass, which enabled them 
™??f^'" to steer steadily in whatever direction they 
navigation ^.jghed, cvcn whcn the sun and stars were not 
visible. But it was still difficult to determine the place 
of a vessel at sea. There was a rude instrument called 
the cross-staff, which was used to measure the distance 
of some heavenly body (such as the north star) above the 
horizon, and so find the latitude. But for the longitude sail- 
ors had still to trust to ^ 
guess-work, for the ^^•... 
watches and chrono- 
meters with which 
ship captains now 
measure longitude 
were not yet invented. 

Columbus directed 
his course first to the 
Voyage to Canary 
the west Islands, 

where he spent almost 

^1 n,.- 1 • THE CROSS-STAFF 

a month rehttmg his 

vessels. When those shores were left behind them, and 
they were at last embarked on the unknown waters of the 
*'Sea of Darkness," the sailors began to lose courage. 
They encountered no storms, but the gentle trade winds 
blew ever toward the west, and the men feared lest they 
might never be able to return home. One day, when 
the wind shifted so as to be favorable for the return 
voyage, they almost broke out into mutiny. 

"Let us return to our country," cried they. "We 
have fought enough with the sea. The winds are good; 
let us return at once." 




VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 275 

Columbus succeeded in calming them, for a time, and 
the westward voyage was continued. Flights of strange 
birds and other signs of land kept raising j^^^.^^ 
hopes which remained unfulfilled. The mur- ^^,^;j| ^^^ 
murings then began anew, and soon some bold 
spirits began to add threats to murmurs. If the Admiral 
would not return, while it was still possible to do so, 
said they, some dark night a stealthy push might hurl 
him over the rail ; and who would be able to say that this 
was not an accident? 

Fortunately new and surer signs of land began to 
appear. The birds came flying about the ships in ever 
increasing numbers, and among them were ^ 
some which were known never to go far from of land 

appear 

shore. At last, on October 11, pieces of wood, 
which had evidently been cut or carved by the hand of 
man, were observed floating on the waves. Bits of cane, 
a green rush or two, and a branch of thorn with berries 
attached came floating by. There could now be no 
doubt that land was close at hand. 

At evening prayers that day, Columbus said to the men : 
"Let us thank God that we have been preserved 
during so long and perilous a voyage. During the night 
let each one watch vigilantly, for at the break of day we 
shall sight land. To the one who first perceives it I 
will give a silken jacket, together with a sum of money." 
Soon after nightfall Columbus thought that he saw 
in the distance a little light which moved about like 
a torch carried upon shore. At two o'clock Land is 
in the morning came the boom of a cannon October 12, 
from one of the vessels, announcing that land ^ 
was seen. It was now Friday, the 12th of October. 
We can imagine the impatience with which all awaited 
the dawning day. 



276 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Then at last land lay before them — a low-lying island, 
surrounded by reefs, and studded with green trees. 
T ^- ^ With a crimson robe over his armor, and the 

Landing 

cSumb royal standard of Spain in his hand, Colum- 
bus landed and fell upon his knees, returning 
thanks to God. Men and women, with olive colored 
skins and mild manners, gathered about the little com- 
pany, and gazed upon these strange beings so unlike 
themselves, who with their ships seemed to have dropped 
from the skies. Columbus named the island San Sal- 
vador, in honor of the Holy Saviour by whose favor his 
enterprise had been crowned with success. 

The land which Columbus had discovered was one of 

the Bahama Islands, but he believed that it was one of 

the islands which lie off the coast of Asia. 

His 

return After discovering the islands of Cuba and 

voyage , . ^ 

Hayti (which he thought must be Japan) he set 
out on the voyage home, where he arrived on the 15th of 
March, 1493. Thus was completed the most memorable 
voyage that man has ever dared to attempt. 

The joy with which Columbus was greeted on his 
return was wonderful to behold. All the bells rang, 

and the rulers of the city came to greet him 
triumphal at the water's edge. His journey to the court 

of Ferdinand and Isabella was a continual 
triumph. The people came from all directions to see the 
man who had found new lands to the west. 

When he entered Barcelona, where the King and Queen 
were, he caused six Indians, whom he had brought, to go 
before him bearing baskets and open basins filled with gold 
and jewels and other precious things. Ferdinand and 
Isabella would not permit him to kneel to present his 
offerings, but caused him to be seated in their presence. 
This was the greatest honor which they could pay him. 



VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 277 

Columbus made three other voyages to the New World. 
On the first of these, in 1493, he discovered some other 
islands of the West Indies, and made some ^^^^^ 
settlements there. On the second, in 1498, he ^«y^^f,^^ 
discovered the island of Trinidad and the coast 
of South i\merica, and was astonished to find the vast 
fresh water river of the Orinoco. From this expedition he 
was brought back home in disgrace and in chains, on 
charges of cruelty and misgovernment. His heart was 
broken at such ingratitude; but in 1502 he made another 
voyage, which proved to be his last. This time he coasted 
along the shores of Honduras, in Central America. 

Columbus could not rid himself of the idea that he had 
reached Asia, and everywhere he looked for the rich 
kingdoms described by Marco Polo, and for ^.^ ^j^^p. 
the spice islands from which the Portuguese l^^^^J^^^ 
were now drawing such great wealth. His last 
days were clouded with disappointment. He died in 
Spain in the year 1506. Thirty-six years later his bones 
were carried to one of the islands which he had dis- 
covered, and buried in the cathedral of San Domingo. 

He had failed to find the ocean route to India, but he 
had accomplished something very much greater. He 
had discovered a New World, in which men ^j^^^^e 
were to find refuge from the misgovernment ^^^^^^ 
and persecutions of the Old World, and where 
all that was best of European civilization was to be 
transplanted and grow to heights which as yet were 
undreamed of. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1 . Locate the places discovered by Columbus. 

2. What were Queen Isabella's reasons for helping Columbus? 

3. Why was Columbus disappointed with his discoveries? 

4. Eead Columbus's own letter describing his first voyage to the 

West, (Hart, Source Readers in American History, 1, p. 2.) 



XXXV 
THE SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 

Points to be Noted 

Meaning of the story about the egg; why men continued to sail 
westward. 

How John Cabot discovered North America; why there was so 
little interest in his discoveries; their importance. 

Increased knowledge of the New World; how America was 
named. 

Balboa's discovery of the Pacific Ocean; what men searched for 
after that. 

Magellan's voyage; date; where he found a passage to the 
Pacific; xlifliculties encountered; his death; how his fol- 
lowers returned to Europe; what they had accomplished. 

There is a story that, at one time, some jealous 
persons were trying to belittle Columbus's achievements 
Coiumb ^^ saying that anyone could have sailed 
and the across the Atlantic and discovered the New 

egg 

World. By way of answer, Columbus picked 
up an egg and asked whether any of them could make it 
stand on end. All tried, one after another, and all 
failed. Then Columbus struck the egg lightly against 
the top of the table, crushing the shell slightly; and 
behold! it stood firmly on its end. He meant to show 
by this that it was easy enough for others to go to the 
New World, after he had once shown them how. 

The motive which sent men over the western seas 
was still the desire to reach the East Indies. In 1497 
John Cabot there was an Italian seaman, named John 
ng an Cabot, living in the city of Bristol, England. 
He was a native of Columbus's own city of Genoa, 
but for a number of years he was a citizen of 

278 



SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 279 

Venice. There he had learned a great deal about the 
spice trade, and perhaps even then he thought of the 
possibility of reaching India by sailing westward. 

At all events, the news of the discoveries which Colum- 
bus was making in the West led him to ask the English 
King to send him on a voyage of discovery His discov- 
in those regions. The King did so, and in America ^**^ 
May, 1497, Cabot set sail, with one small ^^"^'^^ 
ship and only eighteen men. In order not to trespass 
on the regions claimed by Portugal and Spain, he turned 
his vessel toward the northwest. i\fter a short voyage 
he discovered land, which he explored for a distance 
of about nine hundred miles, and then returned to 
Bristol. His whole voyage had lasted only about three 
months. There is no doubt that he discovered the 
coast of North America, and that he was the first Euro- 
pean to look upon the shores of our continent since the 
days of the old Northmen. Probably the land which 
he first discovered was Cape Breton Island, and that 
neighboring island which we still mark on our maps as 
"New-found-land." 

Next year Cabot was again sent out, this time with 
five vessels. On this voyage he seems to have fol- 
lowed the coast down to the latitude of South Lack of 
Carolina, if not somewhat farther. What Ss^'^*^ 
became of him after this we do not know. He 
left no written account of his voyages, and the English 
do not seem to have been very much interested in them 
at the time. If he had actually succeeded in reaching 
Asia, of course it would have been different. But 
there was little to draw men at that time to the cold and 
savage coasts which Cabot first discovered, and 
farther south there was danger of conflict with the great 
power of Spain. 



280 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Cabot's discoveries became later the ground on which 

England claimed possession of the coast of what is now 

the United States. Nothing, however, was 

Ineir _ ^ 

"nfiiand**^ donc at this time to follow up his discoveries. 
The only immediate result was that they 
opened up a new fishing ground for Europe, to which 
French and English fishing vessels soon began to go 
every year in considerable numbers. 

In the next few years a number of captains — com- 
manding Spanish, Portuguese, and French expeditions — 
explored the coasts of the New World. More 
expiora- than three thousand miles of the coast of 

tions 

South America was traced, in addition to the 
explorations along the coast of North and Central 
America. Gradually the extent and outlines of the 
new lands began to take shape before the eyes of Europe ; 
and, before the time of Columbus's death, men began 
to question whether, after all, these vast lands could be — 
as was at first thought — a part of the continent of Asia. 

Did you ever stop to wonder why the New World 
was named "America," instead of being called "Colum- 
bia," after its real discoverer? You must now learn 
how this came about. 

Americus Vespucius was an Italian seaman and chart- 
Namin^ maker who accompanied several of the Span- 
of . ish and Portuguese expeditions to Central 

America ^ ^ ^ 

and South America. After his return he 
published some letters, in Latin, describing the lands 
which he had visited; and, as he was rather vain and 
wanted the credit for himself, he did not give the names 
of the commanders under whom he had sailed. His 
letters were printed over and over again, and were read 
all over Europe before the first account in Latin of 
Columbus's voyages appeared. The result was that 



SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 281 

many people, outside of Spain and Portugal, got the 
impression that Vespucius was the real discoverer of the 
lands which he described. 

One of these letters fell into the hands of a German 
professor of geography, who published it as a part of a 
work on geography which he had written. In this he 
said: ''Europe, Asia, and Africa have now been more 
widely explored, and another fourth part of the globe 
has been discovered by Americus Vespucius; so I do not 
see why anyone should rightly object to calling it 
* America' after its discoverer Americus." This name 
was adopted by the map makers, and before the truth of 
the matter was known it was so firmly fixed in use that 
it was impossible to change it. Another injustice was 
thus added to the many which Columbus suffered. 

Up to this time no one had discovered the great ocean 
which washes the western shores of the continents of 
America. This next important step in ad- Balboa dis- 
vancing our knowledge of the New World was Pacific 
taken by a Spaniard named Balboa. He was ^^^^ ^ 
a man of great courage and resourcefulness, who had 
gone as a planter to Hayti. There he got so deeply in 
debt that he resolved to go on an expedition which was 
being fitted out for the mainland; but, to escape his 
creditors, he was obliged to have himself nailed up in a 
barrel, and put on board with the provisions. Under 
his direction a settlement was made on the eastern 
shore of the isthmus of Panama. He made friends 
with the Indians, and from them learned that there 
was another great sea lying just across the mountains. 

He determined to see this, and in 1513 he set out 
with a picked body of Spaniards and some Indian 
guides. The way through the tropical forests and 
tangled swamps was incredibly hard. At last the little 



282 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

party reached the crest of the mountains, from which 
the Pacific Ocean could be seen glimmering in the dis- 
tance. Four days later they reached the coast. There, 
when the tide came in over the sands, Balboa advanced 
into the water, and with drawn sword took possession 
of the "South Sea" for his master, the King of Spain. 

A new impulse was now given to the movement to 
reach the Indies by sailing to the west. The way was 
Search for much longer than Columbus had supposed, 
th^^sou^h'^** but if a passage through the barrier of America 
could be found, the project was not impossible. 
For years men searched carefully to find some hidden 
strait or river-passage which might lead them through 
to this newly discovered "South Sea." At one time 
the English thought that Chesapeake Bay and the 
Potomac River might offer such a passage; at another 
the French hoped to find it in the St. Lawrence River; 
at another the Dutch had similar hopes of the Hudson. 
But all these hopes were vain; for, as we now know, 
there is no such passage — although the United States 
has now dug one in the Panama Canal. Other hopes 
centered on finding a way around the barrier of America; 
and this was the reason for the long explorations in the 
Arctic regions, to find a "Northwest Passage" through 
the lands of ice and snow, to the region of spices 
beyond. 

Long before these hopes were finally given up, the 
Spaniards had found a way around the southern extrem- 
Voyageof ^^^ ^^ South America. A Portuguese captain 
^sftt^^" named Magellan was its discoverer. Setting 
out from Spain, in 1519, with five small vessels, 
he sailed down the coast of South America until the 
storms and cold of the southern hemisphere drove him 
into winter quarters. A mutiny headed by three of his 



SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 



283 



captains was put down by force. When spring came he 
continued his voyage, and at last discovered the strait 
which ever since has borne his name. 

But Magellan's difficulties were far from being over. 
For thirty-eight days he battled with the dangers of 
this giant strait. One of his vessels had ^^ ^^^^^es 
already been wrecked, and during this time Jhe Pacific 
another stole away and returned to Spain. 
At last the passage through the strait was completed, 
and they entered the South Sea, to which Magellan 

gave the name of the "Peace- 
ful" or "Pacific" Ocean. 

Magellan could not know 
that this sea was twice as 
wide as the Atlan- His death 
tic or the Indian Philippine 
Ocean. For weeks 
and weeks they sailed on and 
on. Their provisions began 
to give out, and the drinking 
water turned thick and yel- 
low^ Ninety-three days 
passed before they found a 
group of inhabited islands, 
Ladrones. Here the ships 
and again set sail. 




MAGELLAN 



which they named the 

took on food and fresh water, 

One week later Magellan discovered the Philippine 

Islands, which thenceforth (until taken by the United 

States in 1898) belonged to Spain. Here he himself 

was slain, in battle with the natives. 

The survivors, after burning one of their three vessels, 
continued the voyage. At last, after many dangers, 
they reached the coveted Spice Islands, and took on a 
heavy cargo of cloves. But again one of their vessels 



284 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

became leaky, and had to be left behind. With the 
one vessel that was left, they dauntlessly continued the 
com"ilte journey, returning to Europe by the path of 
around^th^e ^^^^ Portugucsc arouud the Cape of Good 
world Hope. Contrary winds, heavy seas, sickness, 

and starvation beset them on the way. But in spite of 
all, the survivors of the expedition at last arrived safely 
back in Spain. 

They had been gone three years, and only a handful 
of those who had set out came back home. They had 
the satisfaction of knowing, however, that they were 
the first of mankind who had ever sailed completely 
around the world, and that they had proved beyond 
question not only that the earth is round, but that it is 
possible to reach the East by sailing west. An American 
historian says: "The voyage thus ended was doubtless 
the greatest feat of navigation that has ever been per- 
formed, and nothing can be imagined that would surpass 
it except a journey to some other planet."* 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Why was John Cabot's first voyage shorter than the first 

voyage of Columbus? 

2. What canal has shortened the eastern water route to India? 

3. What great geographical discoveries have been made in recent 

years? 

4. Eule a sheet of paper into three columns. Head these 

respectively — Explorers, Discoveries, Dates. Fill in the 
table, using this and the two preceding chapters for 
material. 



*Fiske, Discovery of America, II., p. 210. 



XXXVI 
SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 

Points to be Noted 

When and why Cortes went to Mexico; circumstances in his 
favor; what the natives thought of him; how he overcame 
opposition. 

Appearance of the City of Mexico; Aztec resistance; conquest 
of the city; results of the conquest of Mexico. 

Spanish conquests in South America: how Pizarro conquered 
Peru. 

Attempts within the territory of the United States; Ponce de 
Leon's discovery of Florida; why Coronado led an expedi- 
tion northward; what he discovered; De Soto's wanderings; 
his discovery of the Mississippi River. 

What the Spaniards were seeking; character of the Spaniards in 
America; how slavery was introduced; work of Las Casas; 
the religious motive of the Spaniards; what the monks did 
for the Indians; results of Spanish conquests. 

In the same year that Magellan sailed from Spain on 
his great voyage, a Spanish expedition left Cuba that 
was to prove as remarkable in the history of p^^^^^es^^ 
conquests as Magellan's is in the history of ^1%^^^}^^ 
sea-voyaging. This was the expedition which (i5i9) 
Hernando Cortes led, in 1519, for the conquest of Mexico. 

Twenty-five years had gone by since Columbus had 
first discovered the New World. In all that time no 
trace had been found of the rich civilized ^^^j^j^ 
countries which Marco Polo had described, ^of^^.^^ 
and for which men were looking. Then, in 
1517, Yucatan was discovered, and in 1518 Mexico. 
Here for the first time the explorers found towns with 
paved streets, temples with rich carvings and sculp- 
tured idols, and peoples with gayly colored garments 
and some knowledge of the arts of civilization. Gold 
and silver were plentiful, too, to a degree hitherto un- 



286 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

known in the New World. The governor of Cuba 
resolved, therefore, to follow up these discoveries at 
once; and the result was the preparation of an expedition 
of eleven ships, 600 men, and a dozen horses, with Cortes 
at its head. 




MEXICAN CALENDAR STONE 

Showing old Mexican sculpture 

Cortes landed in Mexico in March, 1519. He was 
an extraordinary man, as courageous, persevering, and 
Circum- rcsourccful as Magellan himself. In order 
favoring that he might use his whole force, and also that 
Cortes YiQ might prevent any possibility of drawing 

back, he sunk all his ships, so that his men must press 
forward to victory or perish. Three circumstances 
especially favored his expedition. At the very start he 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 287 



had the good fortune to rescue a Spaniard who had 
been wrecked on those shores several years before, and 
who had gained a 
knowledge of some of 
the Mexican lan- 
guages. In the second 
place, Cortes won the 
love of a beautiful 
Mexican princess, 
who was given him 
by one of the chief- 
tains as a slave. She 
quickly learned Span- 
ish, and her devotion 
to him, her knowledge 
of the native lan- 
guages, and of the 
country, then proved 
of the greatest service 
to the success of the 
expedition. 

A third stroke of 
fortune was that Mex- 
ican tradition told of 
a fair-skinned god who 
had once ruled over 
that land, and then 
had been driven out 
over the seas to the 
eastward by a cruel 
bloody-minded deity 
who demanded hu- 
man sacrifices. For many generations the Mexicans 
had believed that in due time this Fair God would 




FAIR GOD OF THE MEXICANS 

From an old Mexican sculpture 



288 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

return, with white-faced companions Kke himself, and 
that then human sacrifices would cease and a wise and 
mild rule would be restored. 

When, therefore, it was reported that white-faced 
strangers with heavy beards had come "in towers which 

moved hither and thither upon the sea," and 
tionbythe that somc of thcsc straugcrs rode frightful 

beasts (horses) such as had never been seen 
before, and that they employed weapons (guns) which 
shot forth fire and made a loud noise, it was supposed 
that it was the Fair God himself who had returned. 
The natives were glad to be released from the yoke of 
the cruel rulers who dwelt in the city of Mexico, and 
who levied upon them heavy tribute of money and 
human victims. They scarcely dared, and at first did 
not wish, to oppose the march of the invading Spaniards. 
After laying the foundations of Vera Criiz, Cortes 
started inland. It was a wonderful march which now 

began! The idols in the temples were over- 

His victory , , . . , i i i i» 

over hostile throwu, the victims who were neld tor sacri- 
fice were set free, and the hostile chiefs were 
made prisoners. Not until the Spaniards had marched 
two-thirds of the distance to the capital was there any 
serious fighting. Then a fierce people, who were enemies 
of the rulers of Mexico, resolved to attack the new-comers 
and test whether they were really gods. The army 
which they drew up numbered 50,000 men. They were 
armed with bows and stone-pointed arrows, copper- 
headed lances, and heavy wooden swords which were 
edged with bits of glass-like stone; they wore tunics 
of quilted cotton and leather helmets, and carried 
leather shields. There were scarcely 500 of the Span- 
iards, but their superior weapons and armor, and above 
all their horses, gave them an easy victory. Many 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 289 

hundreds of the natives were slain, while the Spaniards 
succeeded in concealing the few losses which they suffered. 
These natives then became the firm allies of the 
Spaniards, and joined them in their march upon the 
Aztec tribes who ruled Mexico. About „ . 

Resistance 

seventy miles from the capital, the Aztecs of the 
prepared to resist, and planned a treacherous 
attack. Cortes, however, was warned in time by the 
Mexican princess who accompanied him. He seized 
the leaders of the enemy, while his cannon plowed 
great lanes through the hostile forces and his horsemen 
charged the flying crowds. Terrible punishment was 
inflicted on the treacherous chiefs, and Cortes then 
continued his march. 

Soon the great city of Mexico itself came into view. 
This was strongly situated on an island in a little lake, 
like another Venice, and was connected with ^^ 

Ine 

the neighboring shores by three great cause- ?ity of 

^ '^ . Mexico 

ways of masonry. The Spaniards were 
amazed at its temples and towers, its white-plastered 
houses, and floating gardens. "When we "beheld," 
wrote one of their number, "so many cities and towns 
rising up from the water, and other populous places 
situated on the neighboring shores, and that causeway 
straight as an arrow which led into the capital, we 
remained astonished, and said to one another that it 
appeared like the enchanted castles which they tell of 
in the books of chivalry." 

Montezuma, the priest-king of the Aztecs, attempted 
no resistance, and the Spaniards entered his city in 
November, 1519. To guard against attack, cortes 
Cortes promptly seized the King, and kept w^in^er ^ 
him as his prisoner and guest during the 
winter which followed. When a great expedition of 



290 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

eighteen ships and 1*200 men was sent by the governor 
of Cuba to recall Cortes, on the ground of disobedience, 
he skillfully persuaded the new-comers to join his com- 
mand. 

It was well that Cortes had these reinforcements, 
for in the next summer the long delayed resistance began, 
s aniards Moutczuma was deposed and a new ruler was 
^jy^^n^*"®*" set up in his place. From the temples, the 

pyramids of sacrifice, and the housetops the 
Spaniards were fiercely attacked, and were soon obliged 
to withdraw from the city. In a terrible night retreat 
across the causeway, they lost more than two-thirds of 
their number, and next day they beheld with horror 
their captured companions offered in sacrifice to the 
Aztec war god. 

Not once, however, did Cortes waver. His native 
allies were kept loyal by a great victory gained over 
Corte some who deserted him. Then began the slow 

J^captures work of reconquering the hostile capital. 

Boats were built, and in April, 1521, siege was 
laid to the island city. The Aztecs fought desperately, 
but in vain. In August their city fell, after a great 
part of it had been laid in ruins and its canals and foot- 
ways heaped with corpses. 

Next came the work of rebuilding the city, securing 
the submission of the whole country, and establishing 
s ain ^ government over it under the name of " New 

MeJico^ Spain." The conquest was slowly pushed 

westward, and the peninsula of Lower Cali- 
fornia was discovered. The old idol-worship, with its 
cruel human sacrifices, was abolished, and patient and 
devoted monks began to convert the Indians to Chris- 
tianity. In this way was established the first great 
colony of Spain on the continent of America; and the 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 291 

vast quantities of Mexican gold and silver which poured 
into the coffers of the King soon spurred Spain on to 
other attempts at conquest. 

We cannot go at length into the story of the conquest 
of Peru, in South America. A people with a civilization 
similar to that of the Aztecs dwelt there, with 
stocks of gold and silver which were even of Peru 

(1531) 

greater. In 1531 a Spaniard named Pizarro 
led a force of 200 men and fifty horses from Panama into 
Peru. The conquest was made easy by a civil war 
which was going on between two rival claimants for the 
throne. Again the Spaniards were taken for gods. 
Both claimants to the throne perished, and the Spaniards 
succeeded in seizing the country. Civil war broke out 
between different leaders of the Spaniards, and for a 
long time there were petty conflicts with the natives. 
In the end Peru became the second great colony of Spain 
on the American continents ; and new streams of gold and 
silver began to flow into the treasury of the powerful 
Spanish King. This was followed by the Spanish con- 
quest of almost all of South i^merica except Brazil, 
which was taken by the Portuguese. 

The attempts of the Spaniards to make conquests 
north of the Gulf of Mexico did not result so favorably. 
Florida, which was at first supposed to be an Expiora- 

• 1 1 T 1 1 T» IT • tions within 

island, was discovered by Ponce de Leon in territory of 

United 

1513; and on a second voyage there, eight states 
years later, he received a wound from the Indians which 
put an end to his life. Seven years later another attempt 
was made at exploration, but the party could not find 
their ships again, and all perished except four. After 
eight years of wandering and many adventures these 
four (one of whom was a negro), managed to reach the 
Spanish settlements founded by Cortes on the Gulf of 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



California. They told wonderful stories of vast herds of 
"hump-backed cattle" (buffaloes) which they had seen, 
and gave glowing reports of rich cities which they had 
visited. These, however, were probably nothing more 
than the Indian pueblos, or villages of sun-baked brick, 
which are still to be found in Arizona and New Mexico. 
An explorer named Coronado attempted to find these 
wonderful cities. He led an expedition from Mexico 
Coronado's uortliward, until he arrived in the very heart 
expe ition ^£ what is uow the state of Kansas. No- 
where could he find any cities except the Indian pueblos; 




INDIAN PUEBLO 

but he did discover the Grand Canyon of the Colorado 
River, and the vast grass-covered plains which lie west 
of the Mississippi River. 

Meanwhile one of Pizarro's companions, named De 
Soto, had set out from Spain with an expedition to 
explore the lands west of Florida. Somewhere 
in that region, it was reported, was "the 
richest country in the world"; and this De 
Soto was resolved to find and to conquer. He landed 
(1539) in what is now Tampa Bay, in Florida, with 600 



De Soto 
discovers 
Mississippi 
River 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 293 

men and over 200 horses. The Indians proved very 
hostile, and since no gold or rich cities were there to be 
found, De Soto turned elsewhere. At one place they 
met with a white man — a Spaniard — who had been taken 
captive by the Indians and had lived so long among 
them as a slave that he had almost forgotten his native 
tongue; he proved valuable to De Soto as an interpreter. 
During three years De Soto and his men wandered 
through what are now the states of Georgia, Alabama, 
and Mississippi. Captured Indians were bound with 
collars and chains of iron, and forced to do all the heavy 
labor; and those who refused to work or tried to escape 
were cruelly shot. 

In April, 1541, De Soto made his greatest discovery, 
when he reached the wide muddy stream of the Missis- 
sippi River. He crossed to the western bank of the river, 
and marched into Arkansas; but, go where he would, 
nowhere could he find the gold and silver which he • 
sought. Worn out with fever and hard traveling, 
De Soto died in 1542. To prevent the Indians from 
finding his body, it was sunk in the great river which he 
had discovered. After some further explorations, the 
survivors of the expedition built boats and floated down 
the Mississippi, and then coasted westward until they 
reached Spanish settlements. Cruel and merciless 
though these men were, they showed courage and perse- 
verance, and their expedition helped to make known the 
land which is now the southern part of the United States. 
The stories of Cortes, Pizarro, and De Soto help us 
to understand what it was that the Spaniards sought 
in the New World. Generally they did not ^^^^ ^^^ 
wish to establish colonies as we understand fP^^^^*"**^ 
the term, — that is, they did not come to 
America to clear the wilderness and build up homes for 



294 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

themselves and their families by their own hard labor. 
Instead, they sought treasures of gold and silver, which 
they might take back with them to Spain. They would 
endure untold hardships and face incredible dangers to 
secure these; but they thought it beneath their dignity 
to work with their hands. 

Of course those who came to America were mostly the 
greedy lawless adventurers who always flock to mining 
They towns and other frontier places. But even 

s?ave^y"''^ the better class, who established plantations 
in the islands of the West Indies, and who 
opened up mines there and elsewhere, did not them- 
selves do the work. They introduced the cruel practice of 
enslaving the Indians, and making them work for them. 
And when the Indians proved unsuited to this, and sickened 
and died under the unaccustomed labor and the cruel 
treatment of their masters, they brought to America black 
people from Africa to take their places. In this way that 
curse of negro slavery was fastened upon the land, which 
lasted until the slaves were set free by our Civil War. 

But the introduction of slavery did not take place 
without some protest. The government at home again 
_ .. and again declared that the Indians were free 

Opposition " 

sfaver men. Some of the priests, too, were very 

active in fighting these cruel evils. One who 
particularly opposed slavery was a great and good monk 
named Las Casas. He spent a long life in combatting 
this evil, preaching in season and out of season that men 
endangered their own souls by holding other men in 
slavery. His efforts did much to end the enslavement 
of the Indians, and to keep down the numbers of African 
slaves and to improve their condition. But he could 
not end slavery itself, for the self-interest of the planters, 
was against him. 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA i295 

We must not get the impression, however, that the 
Spaniards were only treasure-seekers and slave-masters. 
No people of that time were more devoutly Religious 
religious, and one of the great objects of their of Xe*^ ^^ 
explorations and settlements was undoubtedly ^p^"*^*"^^ 
to convert the heathen. This was one of the motives of 
Columbus, and also of Magellan. Wherever the Span- 
iards formed settlements, therefore, one of their first 
cares was to teach the Christian religion to the natives. 



SPANISH MISSION OF SANTA BARBARA (California) 

The Franciscan and Dominican friars, who were a 
special kind of monks, took the lead in this work; and 
after the middle of the sixteenth century the Spanish 
Jesuits took up the task. The means used ™*^^*^"^ 
was chiefly the founding of "mission" villages. Two or 
more friars would settle among the Indians, build a 
church and a school, and begin to teach the natives the 
simple truths of the Christian religion as it was practiced 
in the Catholic Church. They also taught the more 
promising of their pupils to read and write, and trained 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 

them to habits of peaceful industry and moral living. 
In some places industrial schools were established, where 
the Indians were taught to be tailors, carpenters, black- 
smiths, and shoemakers. Soon each mission village 
came to be a community of simple farmers and workmen. 
From Peru to California this work went on, and the 
solid masonry remains of these mission buildings may 
still be found even in our own land. A hundred years 
before Harvard College was founded by the Puritans 
in Massachusetts, colleges and universities were estab- 
lished by the Spaniards in Mexico and in Peru; and 
there also the first printing presses in America were set 
up. This work of educating and making Christians of 
the natives was of course much easier in Mexico and Peru, 
because there the people were more civilized than the 
Indians were who dwelt farther north. It was also 
helped by the fact that many of the Spaniards married 
Indian wives. The result was that the Indians were not 
driven out as they were in the regions settled by the 
English, but dwelt alongside of the white race. Today 
all through Spanish America the common people gener- 
ally are of mixed Spanish and Indian descent. 

If the Spanish conquest brought much suffering and 
hardship to the natives, let us not forget that it brought 
also some of the blessings of civilization, and that, on 
the whole, the good which it wrought was probably 
greater than the evil. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Pind out more about the Aztecs in Mexico. 

2. Where did the natives of Mexico and Peru get their vast store 

of gold and silver? 

3. Why were the Spaniards less successful in the North than in 

the South? 

4. In what countries of North and South America is the Spanish 

language still spoken? 



XXXVII 
ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 

Points to be Noted 

What prevented Spain from gaining all America. 

Growth of England since the Crusades; her two great wars. 

The Eeformation in religion; Martin Luther; Calvin; positions 

taken by Spain and England. 
Early years of Elizabeth; dangers after she became Queen; her 

rival; by whom supported; how Elizabeth was freed from 

this danger. 
Loyalty of the English to Elizabeth; Sir Walter Raleigh. 
Signs of improvement in England; agriculture; manufactures; 

commerce. 
English sailors attack Spain in the New World; Sir Francis 

Drake; effects of his voyage around the world. 
English houses; growth in comfort; changes in dress; masques 

and pageants; William Shakespeare. 

If we look at the situation in America as it was in 
1550— that is, about sixty years after Columbus dis- 
covered the New World— we see that Spain why^^n 
had seemingly outdistanced all her rivals. dM-t 
By an agreement arranged by the Pope, For- Spanish 
tugal undertook to confine its efforts to those parts of the 
world which lay to the east of a north and south line 
drawn through the middle of Brazil; and in return Spain 
agreed not to trespass in the region of the Portuguese 
discoveries in the East Indies. The only rivalry which 
it seemed necessary to fear was thus disposed of. Spain 
might well look forward to the completion of what she 
had already carried so far— namely, the peaceful occu- 
pation by her subjects of practically the whole of North 
and South America. 

What was it that prevented the accomplishment ot 
this, and gave to other nations, especially France and 



398 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

England, the best parts of North America? The answer 
is to be found chiefly in two facts, — first, the gradual 
awakening of the other nations to a consciousness of the 
opportunities which they were letting, slip in America; 
and second, the rise in Europe of political and religious 
quarrels which tied the hands of Spain, so that she was 
unable to prevent the settlement of other nations in 
lands which she claimed. 

England was the land which accomplished most in 
this way, so we may begin our account by considering 
her position at this time. 

In the period since the close of the Crusades the 
growth of England had been hampered by two great 
England wars. The first of these wars was with 
c"u?ad^l France. Even after the loss of Normandy by 
King John (seep. 163), the English kings con- 
tinued to possess some lands in the French kingdom. 
In addition to the troubles caused by this fact, there came 
a time when the English king claimed to be the rightful 
King of France on the ground that he was the nearest 
heir to the French king who had just died. When the 
French nobles rejected this claim, a war followed between 
the two countries which lasted so long that it is called 
the Hundred Years' War. The English kings did not 
secure the French crown; instead, they lost the lands 
which they long had had in France. Then, when this war 
was over, there began a civil war in England over the 
right to the English crown. This is called the War of the 
Roses, because one party took the white rose as its badge, 
and the other the red rose. But in spite of these two wars, 
England had grown greatly in wealth and in population 
since the days of King John; and now, under a strong and 
united government, with an able line of rulers, she was be- 
ginning to make her influence felt in the afi^airs of Europe. 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 299 

But before England had really awakened to the 
opportunity which she was letting slip in America, there 
came a great religious change in Europe, ^ ^^j.^.^^^ 
which we call the Reformation. This began l^^^^^^'^"" 
in Germany and in Switzerland, but soon 
spread to many other countries. The chief leader in the 
movement was a German monk named Martin Luther. 
He threw off the Pope's authority, and wished to abolish 
the monasteries, put the church services into the language 
of the people, and make a number of changes in the 
doctrine or teachings of the Church. The Pope and other 
rulers in the Church, however, refused to accept these 
changes. The result was that the people of Europe 
were divided into two parties, — the Catholics, who 
held fast to the old Church, and the Protestants, who 
accepted the changes which Luther and other reformers 
proposed. 

In Switzerland the chief leader of the reformers was 
John Calvin. In some ways he went further in making 
changes than Luther did, and he is especially to be 
remembered as the founder of the Presbyterian Church. 
Calvin's teaching spread into Holland, into Scotland, 
and among many of the people of France. It had a 
great influence also in England, and among the English 
people who settled in America. 

At the time when Luther was preaching his changes, 
the King of Spain happened to be Emperor (Charles 
Spain heads V.) in Germany also. He was not able to 
S^thoiic put down the Protestants there, but he was 
P^*"'^ successful in keeping their teachings out 

of Spain. The people in Spain remained firmly Catholic; 
and when his son, Philip II., became King, Spain began 
to take the chief part in opposing the Protestants 
everywhere. 



300 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



In England, on the other hand, King Henry VHI, 
separated from the Catholic Church because the Pope 
^ , ^ would not grant him a divorce from his Queen. 

England . ^ ^ 

heads the When his daughter Mary came to the throne 

Protestants ^ -^ 

she restored the Catholic Church in England ; 
and she and her husband, Philip 11. of Spain, followed 

the evil practice 
of that time in 
burning at the 
stake a great 
m any persons 
who refused to 
accept the Cath- 
olic faith. When 
she died without 
children, her 
half-sister Eliza- 
beth became 
Queen; and in 
Elizabeth's 
reign (1558 to 
1603), not only 
was Protestant- 
ism restored, but 
England became 
the chief champ- 
ion of that cause 
in Europe. In this way Spain and England came to be 
the rival heads of opposing religious parties. 

Elizabeth had seen much trouble and passed through 
many dangers while she was still a girl. Her mother, 
whom Henry VIII. married after he had divorced his 
first wife, had later been put to death by that cruel 
tyrant. Elizabeth was early surrounded by Protestant 




QUEEN ELIZABETH 

Note the elaborate costume and many jewels 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 



301 



influences; and was now in favor with her father, and 
now out of favor, according to his reUgious pohcy of the 
moment. Her half-sister Mary disUked her 
because of the trouble between their mothers, 
and at one time Mary's Spanish advisers 
strongly urged that Elizabeth should be put to death, 



Queen 

Elizabeth 

(1558-1603) 




LONDON BRIDGE IN THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 

Notice the houses built on the bridge, also the heads over the bridge gate 

Even after she had become Queen her position was not 
at first secure. A great number of Englishmen still 
clung to the Catholic religion, and there were many plots 
to dethrone her, and even to kill her, in order that that 



302 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

religion might be restored. Also all through the early 
part of her reign there was the danger that Spain might 
aid these plots by leading an army to invade England, 
and set a Catholic ruler in her place. 

Catholics said that Henry VIII. 's marriage to Eliza- 
beth's mother was not a real marriage, because Henry's 
Claims of divorce from his first wife was not lawful. 
Jf^scot?"^^** If they were right, Elizabeth had no claim to 
the crown, and it ought to go to the next heir. 
This was Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland ; and since she 
was a good Catholic, most of the plots were for the pur- 
pose of seating her on the throne of England. 

So long as the Queen of Scots lived, therefore, Eliza- 
beth's throne, and possibly her life, were in danger. 
Fortunately for Elizabeth, at the end of ten years a 
rebellion broke out against Mary in Scotland, and she 
was obliged to flee into England. There Elizabeth kept 
her in captivity for eighteen years; but still the plotting 
continued. At one time Mary sent this message to the 
Spanish ambassador in England: 

"Tell your master that if he will help me, I shall be 
Queen of England in three months, and the Catholic 
religion shall be restored throughout the land." 

For many years Parliament had been urging Elizabeth 
to have Mary put to death. At last, when a new plot 
was discovered, Elizabeth yielded, and the Queen of 
the Scots was brought to trial. She was condemned to 
death, and after some hesitation Elizabeth signed the 
death warrant. The Scottish Queen went to her 
execution with the courage of a martyr. 

"Cease to lament," said she to one of her attendants, " 
"for you shall now see a final end to Mary Stuart's 
troubles. I pray you take this message when you go — 
that I die true to my religion and to Scotland." 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 303 

The death of the Queen of the Scots freed Elizabeth 
from the danger of plots at home, although (as we shall 
see in a later chapter) she had still to face a ^j.^^^^^^^ 
formidable attempt by Spain to conquer J^^^//***" 
England. Henceforth her subjects supported 
her loyally, for however much they differed about relig- 
ious questions none of them wished to see the country 
ruled by foreigners. They saw in their Queen, too, the 
representative of the rising greatness and prosperity of 
England. The fact that she was a woman, and un- 
married, also caused many of the younger nobles and 
gentlemen to attach themselves to her cause with chiv- 
alrous devotion. 

Sir Walter Raleigh, who was to play an important 
part in the founding of the first English colonies in 
America, was one of the young men who ^.^ 
attached themselves to Elizabeth's court. ^aUer^ 
He was born near the sea, in the western part 
of England, and as a boy was fond of the company of 
sailors, and of reading all the books of voyages on which 
he could lay his hands. When he became a man he 
entered the Queen's service as a soldier. There is a story 
told of the way in which he first attracted the notice 
and won the favor of Elizabeth. She was walking with 
her ladies one day when they came to a muddy place in 
the road. The Queen hesitated to go on, as she disliked 
to soil her shoes. Raleigh, who happened to be 
there, instantly took off his new plush cloak and spread 
it over the muddy place for the Queen to walk on. 
Elizabeth was pleased with his politeness and readiness 
of wit, as well as with his handsome appearance; and 
she rewarded him with several appointments about her 
court. From being a poor gentleman, he soon became 
a knight and one of the most wealthy of the courtiers. 



304 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

But though it was his pleasant manners which first won 
him the Queen's favor, it was only the stout heart and 
sound head which he showed in her service that enabled 
him to keep it. 

By Elizabeth's time the Middle Ages were past, and 

life and thought were everyway more free. England 

was like a young man just coming into the 

strong and fullucss of his vigor and strength. Every- 

prosperous , . . 

where there was energy and activity such as 
had never been seen before. The result was that Eng- 
land increased greatly in population, prosperity, and 




GOLD COIN OF ELIZABETH 

Shows head of the Queen on one side,, and on the other the arms of England (three 
lions) "quartered" with the lilies (fleur-de-lis) of France 



wealth. Agriculture was so much improved that it was 
said that one acre would produce as much under the 
new methods of farming as two had under the old. 
Manufactures grew rapidly, especially the spinning 
of yarn, and the weaving and dyeing of woolen cloth; 
but the work was still done by hand, in the cottages of 
the people, and not (as is now the case) in great factories 
with steam-driven machinery. 

The increase in shipping and commerce was equally 
great. English fishing vessels had for some time made 
distant voyages, even to the cod-fishing "banks" 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 305 

of Newfoundland; but now English merchant ships 
began to take a large part in the carrying of goods of all 
sorts between different parts of the world. Just at this 
time the great trading city of Antwerp, in Belgium, 
was almost destroyed in a war with the Spaniards; and 
it is said that a third of the merchants and manufac- 
turers of the ruined city found new homes on the 
banks of the Thames, in England. London now 
became, in its turn, the greatest trading city in the 
world. The spices, cotton, and silks of India, the gold 
and sugar of the New World, the timber and fish from 
the Baltic Sea, were there exchanged for the woolen 
cloths and other manufactures of England. English 
merchants became the most energetic and enterprising, 
and English sailors and sea-captains the most daring and 
skillful, in all the world. 

It was not to be expected that merchants and sailors 
as enterprising as these would long permit Spain to enjoy 
the sole right of settling and trading in Amer- English 
ica. They soon began to cross the Atlantic, Ittack 
and to trade wherever they liked. When the ^^*" 
Spaniards opposed them, the English fought with them, 
and sometimes even captured the ships in which Spain was 
bringing home the treasures of gold and silver from the 
mines of Mexico and Peru. Many of these bold English 
sea-captains, it must be confessed, were little better than 
pirates. In addition to fighting the Spaniards, they did 
not hesitate to kidnap slaves on the African coast, and 
to sell them to the colonists of Spain in the New World. 
Sir Francis Drake was a captain of a different sort. 
He had early suffered injuries from the Spaniards, and he 
devoted his life to securing revenge. On a sir Francis 
voyage which he made to Panama, he climbed 
a tree on a mountain ridge, from which he could 



306 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

see the South Sea which Balboa had discovered and 
Magellan had sailed upon; and he made a vow that he 
too would "sail once in an English ship in that sea." 
With this object, Drake set out in 1577 with five small 
vessels. Two of his ships had to be abandoned as unsea- 
worthy off the coast of Brazil. A third was wrecked in a 
furious storm which struck them after passing through 
the Strait of Magellan; and a fourth was separated from 




DRAKE'S SHIP 

It was in this ship that he voyaged around the world 

Drake's vessel by the same cause, and returned without 
him. With the single ship which was left, Drake sailed 
up the western coast of South America, plundering 
Spanish towns, capturing treasure vessels, and gaining 
an enormous amount of booty. At one place where 
they landed for water, they "lighted on a Spaniard who 
lay asleep, and had lying by him thirteen bars of silver.'* 
"We took the silver," says this account, "and left the 
man." 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 307 

After Drake was "sufficiently satisfied and revenged," 
he prepared to return home. To sail back by the way 
he had come would be dangerous, both because ^^.^ ^^^^^^ 
of the storms on that route and because the ?^«"g»;^be 
Spaniards would be looking for him there. 
So Drake turned northward, and searched for some such 
passage through North America to the Atlantic as men 
then expected to find. He did not find this, but he did 
discover the coast of California. In the end he resolved 
to return by Magellan's route across the Pacific and 
around the Cape of Good Hope. In the Spice Islands 
they took on as much cloves and pepper as their ship 
could carry. Nearly three years after he had set out, 
Drake landed in England, bringing with him rich stores 
of gold, silver, silk, pearls, precious stones, and spices. 
He was the first Englishman to sail around the globe. 
The Spaniards were furious at such attacks, but English- 
men gloried in what Drake had done, and Elizabeth 
showed him as much favor as she could without pro- 
voking Spain to open warfare. 

The wealth which EngHsh adventurers and traders 
were gaining helped to produce a great change in EngUsh 
ways of living. Rude farmhouses began to improve- 
give place to fine dwellings of brick and stone. Eifgiilh" 
Chimneys, which were unknown in the early 
Middle Ages, were introduced, and the smoke from fires 
no longer blackened the ceiUngs and blinded the inmates 
while seeking an outlet through door or window. The 
windows, too, were now filled with sashes of glass, instead 
of being merely closed in cold weather with heavy 
wooden shutters, or covered over with semi-transparent 
sheets of oiled paper. DweUings thus became lighter 
and warmer in the dark days of winter. In earlier times 
the floors were covered with layers of rushes gathered by 



308 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

the river side, and these became filthy and foul smelling 
before the winter was done, from the bones and other 
refuse dropped among them. Now floors began to be 
covered with rugs and carpets, and the result was much 
more healthful living. Dishes of pewter, and among 
the nobles even of silver and gold, began to take the place 
of the earlier wooden and horn utensils; and meat was 
eaten more, and salt-fish a great deal less, than had 
hitherto been the case. In the Middle Ages, it was often 
considered enough if one merely succeeded in living, but 
now people began to demand comfort as well. 

The life of the nobles also was greatly changed. The 
War of the Roses had weakened their political power, 
„, , . ^ and now thev gave up their feudal manners 

Wealth and . . . b i- 

display of of Hviug. The great households, in which 

the nobles ^ . f . . 

the lords dined with their dependents in the 
great halls, were broken up. Thenceforth the lord and his 
family spent their time indoors in what was called the 
*'withdrawing-room," whence comes our "drawing- 
room" — that is the sitting-room or parlor. The gloomy 
castles, with their drawbridges, keeps, and battlemented 
walls, were abandoned for airier, lighter, more comfort- 
able buildings. The new wealth led also to more lavish 
display in dress ; and a love of display and of color which 
today is unknown was shown even in the dress of the men. 
Slashed velvets, ruffs, and silken hose, with a profusion 
of jewels and laces, were the ordinary wear of the Queen's 
courtiers. Elizabeth herself was especially vain and extrav- 
agant in dress, and it is said that she had 3000 gowns of 
strange fashion, and eighty wigs of different colored hair. 
Masques and pageants, which helped to develop 
modern stage-plays, were a prominent feature of the 
court life. An account of the reception which the Earl of 
Leicester gave the Queen when she visited him at his 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 309 

castle of Kenilworth will help us to understand what 
these were. As she approached the castle, with her train 
of ladies and more than four hundred attend- ^^^^^^^ 
ants and servants, in the twilight of a J^^^^^^^ 
summer evening, she was greeted with fire- 
works, the discharge of cannon, and loud outbursts of 
music. The porter, a huge man with a great club, at 
first pretended to forbid their entrance; but, upon seeing 
the Queen, he dropped his club, humbly presented her 
with his keys, and bade her welcome. As she crossed the 
bridge over a little lake, a raft approached which was 
made up to represent a floating island; this was sur- 
rounded by sea-horses on which were mounted persons 




TRAVELING IN STATE IN ELIZABETH'S TIME 

who represented mythical water-deities. A beautiful 
woman, dressed like a queen, stepped forth and repre- 
sented herself to be the famous Lady of the Lake, 
renowned in the stories of King Arthur. She greeted 
the Queen, and surrendered the castle and all its pos- 
sessions to her. Elizabeth remained at Kenilworth 
for seventeen days; and every morning to feed the great 
company ten oxen were slaughtered, and to give her 
people drink sixteen hogsheads of wine were opened, 
and forty hogsheads of beer. William Shakespeare, the 
great English play-writer, lived not far from Kenilworth; 
and perhaps he was among the crowds who came from 
miles around to see the spectacles, and there gained 



310 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

some of the ideas which he later employed in the scenes 
represented in his plays. 

This wealth and splendor all testifies to the energy 
and activity of the English people of that time. They 
had long been great travelers, having engaged much in 
pilgrimages and foreign wars. Now their energies 
were to be centered on commerce and maritime adven- 
tures, and these were to lead them to the founding of 
colonies as rivals to Spain in the New World. 

Points to be Noted 

1. Make a list of the things which prepared the English to 

compete with Spain in the New World. 

2. Find out more about Martin Luther and the Eeformation in 

religion. 

3. Did Elizabeth do right in putting Mary Stuart to death! 

Give your reasons. 

4. Read Sir Walter Scott's account of Raleigh's first interview 

with Elizabeth. (Kenilworth,ch- xv.) 

5. Locate on the map the places visited by Sir Francis Drake in 

his voyage around the world. 

6. Read Scott's account of Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth. 

{Kenilworth, ch. xxx.) 

7. Find out more about William Shakespeare and his works. 



XXXVIII 
FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN 

Points to be Noted 

Scene of French and Spanish rivalry in Europe; its outcome; 

extent of the possessions of Charles V.; effect on Spanish 

colonization. 
Character of the French King; the great hero of the war; 

Bayard's training; his deeds; his death. 
Why King Francis turned to America; Verrazano's voyage; 

date; Cartier's four expeditions; dates; what he discovered; 

what he sought. 
Why Admiral Coligny sent out colonists; where they settled; 

date; fate of this colony. 
Where the French then turned their efforts; result. 

France also now entered into rivalry with Spain, 
both in the Old World and in the New. The quarrel 
began over power in Italy, which since the 
downfall of the Roman rule had been divided rivalry with 

Spain 

into a number of warring states. It was 
largely, indeed, because Charles V. was so much occupied 
with his wars there that he was not able to put down the 
religious Reformation in Germany. The outcome of 
these wars was that Spain secured the island of Sicily, 
the kingdom of Naples, which occupied all the southern 
half of the peninsula, and the duchy of Milan, which 
took in a great part of the valley of the River Po. These 
territories, added to the kingdom of Spain, the Nether- 
lands, Germany, and the Spanish possessions in the New 
World, made Charles V. one of the greatest monarch's that 
the world had ever seen. But, instead of strengthening 
Spain in its work of colonizing, these great possessions in 
Europe weakened her; for the jealousy of all the nations 
of Europe was now aroused toward her, and she was 

311 



312 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



obliged to waste the treasures of Mexico and Peru in 
ceaseless warfare at home. 

Francis I., the French King, was the chief contestant 
with Charles V. for the possession of Italy. He was an 
Bayard the able King, and fond of literature and art; 
wars ^n*^**^ but, as a wisc Frenchman said, he '*did every- 
Europe thing by fits and starts." The great hero of 

the war on the French side, therefore, was not the King 
himself, but a French nobleman named Bayard. 




BAYARD 

From an old engraving 



Although feudalism and knighthood were now dis- 
appearing with the increased use of gunpowder. Bayard 
is renowned as the ideal knight, "without fear and with- 
out reproach." For nearly two hundred years past, 
each successive head of his family had died fighting in 
battle. Bayard had been trained for knighthood in the 
way described in chapter xxv. While he was a page 
he attracted the attention of the French King by his 



FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN 313 

graceful bearing and good manners, and was taken by 
him to the French court. There he became skilled in 
tournaments, and in all that pertained to knighthood. 
When the wars over Italy broke out he captured a 
banner in battle, and was rewarded by being made a 
knight. Shortly afterward, in a battle near Milan, he 
pursued the enemy so hotly that he followed them into 
the city, and was taken prisoner; but the Duke of Milan 
was so pleased with his bravery that he set him free 
without a ransom. At another time, when thirteen 
Germans challenged thirteen French to meet them in 




FRENCH BATTLE IN ITALY 

From a sculpture of that time; notice the cannon in the background 

battle, Bayard was one of the French champions, and 
his heroism won the victory for his side. At still another 
time, he held a bridge single-handed against two hundred 
Spaniards. 

Bayard served all through these Italian wars, and was 
several times wounded. When Francis I. became King, 
and won a great battle near Milan, he too wished to be 
made a knight, and said: 

"Bayard, my friend, I wish to receive knighthood 
from your hands, for you are rightfully held to be the 
greatest knight Hving." 



314 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

But Bayard was not merely a brave warrior; he was an 
able and painstaking general as well. When fortune 
turned against Francis I., and France was threatened 
with invasion, Bayard with only 1000 men held a poorly 
fortified town on the French border against the attacks 
of 35,000 soldiers of Charles V. All France rang with 
praise of this deed, and the French government publicly 
thanked Bayard, calling him " the saviour of his country." 
He lived only three years after this, dying as the result 
of a wound received from a musket ball, in 15 '24. 

Shortly before Bayard died, the French King began 
to turn his thoughts to the New World, where Spain 
King was winning unhampered such vast territories, 

tumrtothe For twenty-five years the hardy Norman 
fishermen had been sending their fishing 
smacks to the "banks" of Newfoundland, but up to this 
time the French had taken no part in voyages of explo- 
ration and discovery. Now an Italian sea-captain 
named Verrazano brought to King Francis rich treasures 
which he had taken out of some captured Spanish ships 
from America. On seeing these the French King ex- 
claimed, in amazement: "The Emperor can carry on 
war against me by means of the riches which he draws 
from the West Indies alone!" He resolved to seek a 
share in the land from which these riches came. When 
told of the agreement, approved by the Pope, by which 
Spain and Portugal had divided the unknown world 
between them, he said : 

"By what right do they monopolize the earth? Did 
our first father Adam make them his sole heirs.'' If so, 
I should like to see a copy of that will; and until I 
do, I shall feel at liberty to seize all the land in the New 
World that I can get." 

He appointed Verrazano to command an expedition 



FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN 315 

to that region. Verrazano set sail with one ship and 
fifty men, in 1524, and explored the American verrazano's 
coast from North Carolina to Maine. His ?ffns 
was the first ship, apparently, ever to enter ^^^^^■ 
the great harbor of New York, where today so many 
thousand vessels come and go every year. 

But Francis I. was too busy with his wars in Italy to 
follow up this voyage just then; and when he resumed 
his American plans, ten years later, it was to Cajder^ 
the region about the cod-fisheries of New- J^^^^^'^^^ 
foundland that his sailors turned their atten- (1534-43) 
tion. Jacques Cartier, one of the hardy Norman 
sailors, was the captain who now led the French expedi- 
tions. He made four voyages to America, and his ex- 
plorations gave the French their title to Canada. On 
his first voyage he entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and explored the coasts of Newfoundland and New 
Brunswick. On his second voyage he discovered the 
St. Lawrence River, and ascended it in rowboats as far 
as where Montreal now stands. He built a fort on the 
site of Quebec, and spent the winter there, losing twenty- 
five of his men from sickness and the severity of the 
weather. It was not, however, until seventy-two years 
later (1608) that a permanent settlement was made 
there, by a Frenchman named Champlain. 

What Cartier sought in his voyages to the St. Lawrence 
was what many others were seeking in different parts 
of America at this time — namely, a strait or search for 
water passage through the unknown continent to the 
to the ocean which was now known to wash 
its western shores. When he found that his way beyond 
Montreal was barred by rapids in the St. Lawrence 
River, he named these "the China Rapids," for he hoped 
that when they were once passed a way to China might 



316 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

there be found. Rumors of great bodies of water lying 
not far to the west encouraged the French to persevere 
in this quest; but when these were reached (by Cham- 
plain, in 1615) they proved to be the Great Lakes. By 
this time the French had found out that, even if Canada 
did not afford a passage through to the Pacific Ocean, 
it was at least a land well worth having because of the 
rich fur-trade which could be carried on with the natives ; 
so from that time their work of colonization went 
steadily forward. 

Canada was so far removed from the Spanish terri- 
tories in America that the French there were left undis- 
turbed. This was not the case when they tried to make 
settlements farther south. 

About thirty years after Cartier made his first voyage, 
some French explorers landed on the eastern shore of 
Proteitants ^^^rida, and brought back reports that it was 
Florida" "^^^^ fairest, fruitfulest, and pleasantest land 

(1564) of all the world." At this time a series of 

dreadful civil wars had just broken out in France between 
the Catholics and Protestants, and the leader of the 
French Protestants, Admiral Coligny, thought that it 
would be a good thing to found a colony in America as 
a refuge for Frenchmen of his religion. He secured 
three ships from the French government, and sent out 
an expedition in 1564 which founded a colony in Florida 
at the mouth of the St. Johns River. They called their 
settlement Fort Carolina, in honor of the French King, 
Charles (Latin Cardus), who was then on the throne. 
The settlers, however, were mostly adventurers and 
soldiers, and instead of setting to work to till the soil 
and build up new homes, they wasted their time in ex- 
ploring for treasure and in attacking the Spaniards. 

When news came to King Philip of Spain that these 



FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN 317 

French Protestants had settled in lands which he claimed, 
and that they were capturing his ships, he was fPf^jf/^^ 
very angry. He sent out an expedition to ^^^r^^^^^ 
punish these "heretics" (as Catholics called (i565) 
the Protestants); and in command he placed an able 
but cruel Spaniard named Menendez. First, Menendez 
built a Spanish fort at St. Augustine, about fifty miles 
from Fort Carolina, which today is famed as the oldest 
existing settlement in the United States. Then, gather- 
ing together all his men, he forced his way through 
thick forests, and swamps, until he came to the French 
settlement. The French had allowed their fort to fall 
into decay, and their watch was ill-kept. The surprise 
by the Spaniards was complete. Almost without a 
blow the French fort fell into their hands. Those who 
declared that they were Roman Catholics were spared, 
as were also about fifty women and children. The rest 
of the French were put to death. When a message 
reached King Philip telling what Menendez had done, 
he wrote in the margin of the letter these words : 

"Say to him that as to those he has killed he has done 
well; and as to those he has spared, they shall be set to 
hard labor in the galleys." 

From this time on the French made no further at- 
tempts to found colonies in Florida. Thenceforth they 
confined their efforts to Canada, where in course of time 
they built up a great colonial empire, to which was 
given the name of New France. 



318 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Locate on a map all the countries ruled over by Charles V. 

2. Eead stories of King Francis I. and of Bayard. (See Pitman, 

Stories of Old France, pages 105-133.) 

3. Why were the fishermen among the first to profit by the dis- 

covery of America? (Remember the use of fish as food 
in Catholic countries.) 

4. What mistaken idea of the size of North America must 

Cartier have had? Can you think of anything which 
helped cause this? (Balboa's exploit.) 

5. What motives did Philip II. have for destroying the French 

settlement in Florida? 

6. What were galleys? What labor did men perform in them? 

Who were the men usually who did this work? 



XXXIX 
THE DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 

Points to be Noted 

Location of the Netherlands; nature of the land; dikes and 
windmills; differences between the northern and southern 
provinces; their prosperity. 

Harsh rule of Philip II.; the Duke of Alva and the Council of 
Blood; a heavy tax imposed. 

William of Orange; why called "the Silent"; he heads the 
resistance; "The Beggars"; seizure of a seaport; revolt of 
the North; Spanish soldiers sack Antwerp; the Catholic 
provinces join the revolt. 

The union broken; northern provinces form the Union of 
Utrecht; declaration of independence. 

Siege of Leyden; murder of William of Orange; date; continu- 
ance of the war; a truce practically ends the struggle; date. 

Importance of the revolt of the Dutch for Americans. 

Another serious hindrance to Spain's colonizing 
plans was the revolt of its Dutch subjects. Among the 
many lands over which Charles V. had ruled rheNether- 
was the district called the Netherlands. 
This lay on both sides of the mouth of the River 
Rhine; and it was called the Netherlands, or "Low 
Countries, " because the land was so low and flat. Much 
of it, indeed, lay below the level of the sea. Strong 
embankments, called dikes, stretched for miles along 
sea and river side, ever thrusting back the hungry 
waves; and giant windmills, with slow-moving arms, 
ceaselessly pumped out the waters which seeped through 
these earthen walls. Patient toil had reclaimed these 
lands from the sea, and unremitting vigilance was neces- 
sary to keep what had been gained. 

The southern half of the Netherlands now makes up 
the little kingdom of Belgium. Here were located many 

319 



320 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



flourishing towns, which w^ere famous for their commerce, 
and for their cloth and other manufactures. The people 
of these districts were related to the French in their speech 
and in their history; while in the north the language 
(Dutch) was related to the German. The northern half of 
the Netherlands today makes up the kingdom of Holland. 




SCENE IN HOLLAND 

From a painting by the Dutch artist Van Ruysdael (died 1682) 

Here fishing, agriculture, and dairying were the chief 
industries, though their commerce also was important. 
When Philip II. became ruler over the Netherlands, 
he found these lands thickly populated, and very rich 
Their and prosperous. Their fleets traded on every 

prosperity ^^^ rj.^^ hundred and fifty vessels often lay 
at one time in the harbor of Antwerp, their chief city; 



DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 321 

and merchants from all countries thronged its banking 
houses. An old writer says of these sturdy mariners 
and merchants: "Like bees they gathered honey 
from all the world. Norway was their forest; the banks 
of the Rhine and southern France their vineyards; 
Germany, Spain, and Ireland their sheep pastures; 
Prussia and Poland their grain fields; India and Arabia 
their spice gardens." They drew more profit than 
Spain and Portugal themselves from the discovery of 
the New World and of the ocean route to India; for 
their commerce brought to them alike the gold and silver 
of Mexico and Peru, and the precious wares of the 
distant East. 

The Netherlands did not make up a single state; 
instead the land was divided into a number of different 
provinces, which were only loosely united. ^^J^Jf/g" 
When the Reformation in religion came, the |J^\^^^^^' 
northern provinces became Protestant, while CathoUc 
the southern ones remained Catholic. Charles V. had 
himself been born in the Netherlands, and although he 
tried to put down the Protestants there, he governed 
the provinces kindly, and the people remained loyal to 
him. 

His son Philip, however, was a man of very different 
sort. He was cold, cruel, and obstinate, and he made it 
his life work to stamp out the Protestant „ . , 

^ Harsh rule 

religion wherever he could. Moreover, he ?f ?^.»"S 

<=' Philip 

set Spaniards and other corrupt and oppres- 
sive foreigners to rule over the Netherlands; and he 
supported their rule with Spanish soldiers, who often 
plundered and mistreated the people. 

Both Catholics and Protestants cried out loudly at 
these violations of their privileges, but in vain. Instead 
of reforming the abuses complained of, Philip punished 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



the men who complained. Then riots broke out, and 
some reckless Protestants seized this opportunity to 
break into Catholic churches and destroy the crucifixes 
and images which they found there. Philip replied 
by appointing as governor of the Netherlands one of the 
sternest, crudest, most bigoted of Spaniards — the Duke 
of Alva. 

The Duke of Alva came with an army of 10,000 men, 
and proceeded to restore order. A court, which was 
^ , popularly called the " Council of Blood, " was 

Tyranny of ^ ^ *^ . 

the Duke of set up especially to hunt down those who had 



the recent riots, or were sus- 
Two Catholic noblemen who 



taken part in 
pected of being heretics, 
had taken a leading part 
in protesting against the 
misgovernment were 
seized and put to death. 
Many thousand lesser per- 
sons were burned, hanged, 
or beheaded. The trials 
were most unfair. One 
of the members of this 
wicked court usually slept 
during its proceedings ; 
but when aroused from 
his naps, without inquiring 

who was on trial or for what, he would cry out, "To 
the gallows, to the gallows with him!" To get money 
to pay his troops and to carry on this cruel work, Alva 
made a law that whenever any goods of any sort were 
sold in the shops or markets one-tenth of the price must 
be paid to his officers. The result was that shops were 
shut and trade came to a standstill. The Netherlands 
were on the brink of ruin. 




WILLIAM THE SILENT 



DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 323 

That they were not ruined, but that instead the Dutch 
Netherlands succeeded in throwing off the tyranny of 
Spain, and estabUshing a government of their wiiuamof 
own, was owing to the great abiUties and heads the 
patriotic efforts of Prince William of Orange. 
He is called William "the Silent," from the good sense 
with which he held his tongue when, at one time, the 
King of France incautiously spoke to him of an agree- 
ment which France had made with Spain for rooting 
out heresy in the Netherlands. "From that hour," 
wrote William twenty years later, "I resolved with my 
whole soul to do my best to drive this Spanish vermin 
out of the land." William now put himself at the head 
of the resistance to the Duke of Alva's tyranny. The 
rebels took the name "The Beggars," from a contemp- 
tuous remark which one of the Spanish ministers made 
about them. Many of them took to the sea and 
attacked the Spanish merchant vessels; and in 1572 a 
band of these "Sea Beggars" succeeded in seizing and 
fortifying one of the seaports. This was the signal for 
revolt throughout the northern provinces. When the 
Spanish soldiers, with bloody fury, seized and almost 
destroyed Antwerp, even the Catholic provinces cast 
in their lot with their Protestant brothers. 

This union, however, did not last long. The Catholic 
provinces returned to their obedience when a wiser and 
milder ruler was appointed to take Alva's place; but the 
Protestant provinces kept up the revolt. The seven 
northern provinces now joined in a union called the 
"Union of Utrecht" (1579); and then, two years later, 
they issued a declaration of independence. This was 
almost two centuries before the English colonies in 
America issued their famous Declaration. 

The Spaniards, after long sieges, were able to take 



324 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

several important towns, which were treated with great 
cruelty. But they could not capture the city of Leyden. 
^^ . This was situated on low ground, about six 

The siege -i *> fo ' 

of Leyden milcs from the sea, and was well defended 
with walls. Under the lead of their heroic 
burgomaster, or mayor, the citizens held out for four 
months. For seven weeks there was no bread within 
the city, and the people died by hundreds. But still 
the city would not surrender. At last William ordered 
that the dikes should be cut. The sea, aided by a high 
tide and strong wind, swept over the land, drowning 
about 1,000 of the besiegers; and Dutch barges, loaded 
with men and supplies, relieved the town. For this 
heroic defense, the town was given a university, which 
became very famous, and where many Englishmen 
studied who later took part in colonizing America. 

The war dragged on for a long time. King Philip had 
taken the cowardly step of offering a great reward to 
Murder of auyouc who would murdcr William of Orange ; 
Orange* ° and at last, after several attempts, that great 
(1584) man was treacherously shot and mortally 

wounded (1584). He was a great statesman, and 
played the same part in securing the independence of the 
Dutch Netherlands that George Washington did for 
the American colonists; but, unlike Washington, he 
did not live to enjoy the victory. 

In spite of the death of their heroic leader, the Dutch 
continued their struggle. But now there was less states- 
manship in their counsels. The different provinces were 
jealous of one another, opposing parties arose among the 
people, and the leaders engaged in desperate quarrels. 
One party wished to offer the crown of the Dutch Nether- 
lands to France, and the other to England. Both 
countries were jealous of the overgrown power of Spain 



DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 325 

and sent aid to the Dutch; but neither country dared 
accept the perilous offer of the crown. 

At last, in 1609, after King Philip's death, when Spam 
was worn out with the long struggle and was distracted 
by the many difficulties which surrounded The^Dutch 
her, a truce was made between Spain and her independ- 
revolted provinces. The final recognition of 
their independence was witheld for many years, but this 
truce practically ended the struggle. At the commence- 
ment of the revolt, the southern provinces had been the 
richest and most prosperous part of the Netherlands. 
At the close of the struggle these provinces were almost 
a desert, and wolves, we are told, roamed over the untilled 
fields. Trade had shifted from the districts which 
remained under Spanish rule to those which had estab- 
lished their independence; and Amsterdam, the chief 
city of the Dutch provinces, took the place of Antwerp, 
the ruined and almost deserted city of the south. 

In many ways this successful revolt of the Dutch 
subjects of Spain is of importance to us Americans. 
It was one of the chief factors in preventing importance 
Spain from going ahead and establishing its struggle to 
rule throughout the whole of America. Not '"^"*'^ 
only that, but the Dutch themselves, after the successful 
outcome of their struggle, took up the work of coloni- 
zation, and explored the Hudson River and made perma- 
nent settlements in what is now the state of New York. 
In this way they had an important part in the making of 
one of the original thirteen colonies. The example of 
the Dutch revolt from Spain, also, encouraged the 
American colonists when it came their turn to revolt 
against the misgovernment of England in America. 
The experience of the Dutch taught us the wisdom of 
granting freedom of worship to persons of different 



326 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

religious beliefs. Finally, the lessons learned by them 
in their efforts to unite their seven provinces into a 
single republican government proved of the greatest 
value to our forefathers when, after our War of the 
Revolution, they sought to unite the thirteen states into a 
federal government. We learned directly from the 
Dutch many things which were of value; but, no less, 
we learned from their mistakes and misfortunes many 
things which we should avoid. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find out what you can about life in Holland today. 

2. Read the letter of Philip II. to his little daughters (see 

Robinson, Readings in European History, II, pages 170- 
171). What good side of his character does this show? 

3. Find out more about the life and character of William of 

Orange. 



XL 

ENGLAND DEFEATS THE SPANISH 
ARMADA 

Points to be Noted 

Why Englishmen aided the Dutch; attitude of Queen Elizabeth. 

Character of Sir Philip Sidney; why England mourned his loss. 

Grounds of King Philip's quarrel with Elizabeth; his prepara- 
tions to invade England. 

How Drake ''singed the Spanish King's beard"; results; why 
the exploit was not repeated. 

Coming of the Armada; strength of the Spanish and English 
fleets; the English commanders; course which they adopted; 
why the Armada stopped at Calais; how the Spanish plan 
was foiled; fate of the Armada. 

Causes of the English success. 

Decline of Spain's power; effect on England; interference with 
English colonies prevented. 

It was natural that Englishmen should wish to aid 
the Dutch in their revolt against King Philip. They 
sympathized with the Dutch because they England 
were Protestants; and they hated Spain, both jj^s^oie 
because English sailors were put to death as 
heretics when they fell into Spanish hands, and because 
they were barred from trade and settlement in the New 
World. Queen Elizabeth was ready to do all that she 
could against Spain, except to go to war with Philip. 
"I think it is good," she wrote, "that the King of Spain 
should be hindered both in Portugal, and in his Islands, 
and also in the Low Countries; and I am ready to give 
such indirect assistance as will not at once be a cause 
of war." 

So Elizabeth rewarded the sea-captains, like Drake, 
who attacked the Spaniards in the New World; and she 



327 



328 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

secretly sent aid to the Dutch. After the murder of 
WilKam of Orange, she went further, and openly sent an 
army to the Netherlands, under the command of an 
English nobleman. 

The hero of the English war in the Netherlands, how- 
ever, was riot the commander of the army, but an English 
Sir Philip gentleman named Sir Philip Sidney. He was 
Sidney ^^^ ^^ great a warrior as the French hero 

Bayard had been, but he became quite as famous; for, 
in addition to being a good soldier, he was also a wise 
statesman, a poet, and a learned and lovable man. 
When he was only eleven years old, he wrote letters to 
his father both in Latin and in French. "If he goes on 
in the course he has begun, " wrote a great nobleman of 
Elizabeth's court, "he will be as famous and worthy a 
gentleman as ever England bred." When he grew to 
be a man he abundantly fulfilled this prophecy. He 
became an officer of Elizabeth's court, and urged her to 
make war upon Spain. When the war began, he was 
appointed to govern one of the towns in the Netherlands 
which was put in England's hands. But he was not 
content to remain out of danger while others were fight- 
ing; so he took part in the war as a volunteer — that 
is, without having a definite appointment from the 
Queen. In a cavalry charge against a Spanish force, 
many times as large as the English, he showed great 
bravery and daring. When his horse was shot from 
under him, he mounted another and fought his way 
through the enemy's ranks. He received a serious 
wound in the leg, and could scarcely manage to make his 
way back to the English camp. He arrived there faint 
from the loss of blood and parched with thirst. But when 
he was about to drink from a bottle of water which was 
brought to him, he noticed that the eyes of a dying 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 329 

soldier were fixed greedily upon the flask. Sidney at 
once handed him the water, saying: "Your need is even 
greater than mine." In those days doctors did not 
know as much about medicine as they do now; and in 
spite of all that they could do, Sidney died of his wound. 
It was partly such kindness as that which he showed to 
the dying soldier, as well as his great abiUties, which 
made the whole English nation mourn his loss. 

King Philip was naturally made very angry by the 
aid which the EngUsh gave the Dutch, and by the many 
attacks on his subjects in the New World. Kuig^PWiip 
In addition, he had another ground of quarrel to^nvad\ 
with Elizabeth. Through one of his ances- 
tors he was descended from the royal family of England; 
and already, during his marriage with Elizabeth's half- 
sister Mary, he had borne the title. King of England. 
Moreover, when Mary Queen of Scots was put to death, 
in the year after Sidney's death, she made King Philip 
the heir to her claim on the English throne. Both 
because of his quarrel with EKzabeth, and because of 
his claims to the throne of that country, Philip now 
resolved to make war upon England; and the war was 
to be not only an attempt to conquer the country, but 
also a crusade to restore the Catholic religion. 

Accordingly, he began to prepare in the harbors of 
Spain a great fleet, called in Spanish an "armada. 
Queen Elizabeth hesitated, and tried nego- g.^ Francis 
tiating with King Philip. But the hardy g-^e at 
Encrlish sea-captains did not propose to sit 
still and wait to be attacked. Sir Francis Drake had 
been appointed to command an EngUsh fleet, with 
instructions to prevent the gathering together of the 
Armada. Rightly fearing that the Queen might change 
her mind, he slipped off to sea before new instructions 



330 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

could reach him. He sailed boldly into the Spanish 
harbor of Cadiz, where he burned thirty-three of Philip's 
ships, captured four others, and destroyed immense 
quantities of food and other supplies which had been 
collected for the Spanish fleet. Drake called this 
"singeing the Spanish King's beard." Before he 
returned home he also captured a vessel which was 
bringing to Portugal (then under Spanish rule) great 
treasures from the East Indies. He thus paid all the 
expenses of his expedition, and also opened the eyes 
of English merchants to the enormous value of the trade 
with the East. 

The damage which Drake had done to King Philip's 
fleet made it necessary to postpone the sailing of the 
The Great Armada for a whole year. Drake and other 
se™sau sea-captains urged the Queen to let them 
' again attack the Spaniards in their own har- 

bors, as the best way of saving England from the danger 
of the Armada; but Elizabeth would not give them 
permission. As a result, King Philip was able to com- 
plete his preparations; and at last, after many diffi- 
culties, the Great Armada set sail for the shores of Eng- 
land. 

When the Spanish fleet appeared in the EngHsh 
Channel, the news was flashed by bonfires, from hilltop 
to hilltop, all along the coast. The Armada consisted 
of 132 vessels, many of them great high-decked ships, 
crowded with soldiers. Some were galleys rowed by 
oars, such as had been used in the Mediterranean Sea 
since the days of ancient Greece and Rome. The 
commander was a Spanish nobleman who knew nothing 
about the sea and had never even commanded an army 
before. He was appointed, in spite of his own protests, 
on account of his noble rank. The English fleet was 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 



331 



THE ARMADA 

1588 

^___ Armada 

English 




332 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

made up of 197 vessels, most of them smaller than those 
in the Armada, but swifter and more easily managed. 
They were also commanded and manned by the best 
seamen and gunners in the world. Because Drake was 
not a nobleman, he was given the second place in com- 
mand instead of the first; but Lord Howard, who was 
made commander in chief, w^as himself a bold and 
skillful sailor, and was guided largely by Drake's advice. 
An old story says that when news of the coming of 
the Spanish fleet was first received. Lord Howard, with 
Drake and other captains, was ashore at the harbor of 
Plymouth, in the southwest of England. They were 
in the midst of a game called "bowls," in which wooden 
balls are rolled upon the grass. Lord Howard wished 
to put to sea at once, but Drake prevented him, saying: 
"There's plenty of time to win this game, and to thrash 
the Spaniards too." 

The English ships allowed the Spanish fleet to pass by 
Plymouth, and then followed it up the Channel. For a 
The English wholc wcck, from Plymouth to the French 
seaport of Calais, the English hung upon the 
rear of the Spaniards, — now advancing, now nimbly 
retiring, but always fighting, and "plucking the feathers" 
(as they called it) of the Armada one by one. Philip 
had ordered the Spanish commander in the Netherlands 
to have an army ready when the Armada arrived, to 
cross over to England under its protection. It was to 
get news of this army that the Spanish fleet anchored at 
Calais. But the English captains found means to pre- 
vent the union of the Spanish fleet with the Spanish 
army. Under cover of the night, they sent into the 
harbor a number of ships loaded with tar and other 
quick-burning, substances, and set fire to them. When 
the Spaniards saw these fire-ships drifting down upon 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 



333 




?^V:i'. . 



334 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

them, they cut their anchor cables in panic, and sailed 
out to sea again. After another all-day fight, the 
Spaniards turned northward, sailing before a southerly 
breeze. They failed to take on the army to invade Eng- 
land, and already the expedition was a failure. 

Worse, however, was to follow. The Spaniards tried 
to return to Spain by sailing around the northern coasts 
storms ^^ Scotland and Ireland. The English vessels 

Sittruction ^^^^ ^^^ «"t «f powder and provisions, and 
so gave up the chase. The summer proved 
to be one of the stormiest ever known, and scores of 
the clumsy Spanish vessels were dashed to pieces on 
the Scottish and Irish shores. The shipwrecked 
Spaniards were either drowned or were put to death 
when they reached the shore. An English ofiicer wrote 
that at one place in Ireland he counted more than 
a thousand Spanish corpses in a five miles' walk along the 
coast. Of all that great fleet, less than half returned to 
Spain. 

King Philip did not blame his admiral for this disaster. 
"I sent you to fight against men," he said, "and not 
Why ^^*^ ^^^^ winds." But it was not the winds 

rhe^Engiish alouc which had givcu the English their great 
victory. It was the superiority of the English 
vessels over the slower Spanish ones; it was the greater 
daring and seamanship of the English sea-captains; it 
was the intrepid courage and skillful marksmanship of 
the English sailors. Man for man, and vessel for vessel, 
the English were better than the Spaniards. This was 
largely so because the English were free men, fighting 
for their faith and for their homes; while the Spaniards 
were subjects of a despotic government, under a King 
who had no great ability. 

After the defeat of the Armada, the power of Spain 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 335 

rapidly declined. England was thenceforth freed from 
the fear of Spanish conquests. The Dutch soon won 
such successes that they were sure of keeping ^^^^^.^^ 
the liberty which they had gained. Even «*^spf°'« 
France might have won from Spain the con- 
trol in Italy which that kingdom had secured, if it had 
not been for the terrible religious wars which were wasting 
France, and which not long afterwards broke out in 
Germany also. Gradually it was seen that Spain could 
not even hold her place as the first power in Europe, to 
say nothing of keeping other nations out of the New 
World. 

Upon the English, the effect of the victory over 
Spain was to spur them on to new and greater 
enterprises. The whole nation now shared England 
the spirit of men like Drake, and the close cofoniza- 
of Elizabeth's reign saw a burst of energy 
in all lines of activity. Before this time the English 
had been held back from founding colonies in the 
New World by their troubles at home, by their 
poverty, by their lack of interest, and above all by 
the fear of Spain. Now all this was past. They 
could go ahead and make settlements in those vast 
regions whose coasts John Cabot had explored, without 
fear that their colonies would be destroyed by Spanish 
soldiers, as the one made by the French Admiral Coligny 
had been by Menendez. Zeal for the Protestant religion, 
hope of gain, and that love of adventure which had sent 
forth the roving sea-captains to prey on Spanish com- 
merce, were now turned in the direction of colonizing 
the New World. The result was that the foundations 
were soon laid of the trade, colonial empire, and maritime 
power which make England today "the mistress of the 
seas." 



336 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find out more about Sir Philip Sidney. 

2. Read the account of the fight with the Armada in Charles 

Kingsley's Westward Ho!, ch. xxxi. 

3. Was the defeat of the Armada due more to the policy of 

Queen Elizabeth, or to that of her ministers and cap- 
tains? Give reasons for your answer. 

4. Read letters written by Elizabeth's captains during the fight 

with the Armada. (See Kendall, Source Book of English 
History, pp. 178-184; or Cheyney, Readings in English His- 
tory, ]>p. 404-408.) 

5. Of what lack do the captains complain in these letters? 

6. Read Tennyson's poem, "The Revenge: A Ballad of the 

Fleet" (a sea-fight with the Spaniards in 1591). 



XLI 
ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 

Points to be Noted 

Why Englishmen wished to found colonies. 

Attempt of Sir Humphrey Gilbert; fate of his first voyage; his 
second attempt; location; why given up; his death; date. 

Sir Walter Ealeigh takes up the work; why he did not go in 
person; date of the first expedition; where it went; descrip- 
tion of the land and people; why named Virginia; Indian 
corn, potatoes, and tobacco found there. 

Ealeigh's first colony; date; where planted; governor; relations 
with the Indians; why and how the colonists returned. 

Arrival of ships with supplies; men left to hold the country; 
their fate. 

Ealeigh's second colony; date; why the governor returned to 
England; number of colonists left behind; Virginia Dare; 
cause of delay in sending supplies; what the governor found 
on his return; probable fate of this Lost Colony; end of 
Ealeigh's attempts at colonizing. 

New interest in colonizing under James I.; beginning of perma- 
nent English colonies. 

Men like Sir Francis Drake thought of the New World 
only as a field for trading and plundering expeditions 
which would enrich themselves and satisfy ^^^^^^^ 
their hatred of Spain. There were other «^,^^f^^«** 
Englishmen, however, who looked further 
ahead, and saw in it an opportunity to extend England's 
power by founding homes for Englishmen across the seas. 
No doubt the example of Coligny, who tried to find homes 
in America for persecuted French Protestants, helped 
to suggest the idea. But the first Enghsh colonies were 
not founded as refuges for those who suffered for their 
religion at home. That was to come later, when the 
Pilgrims and Puritans settled in Massachusetts, the 
Catholics in Maryland, and the Quakers in Pennsyl- 
vania. The purpose of the first attempts to found 

337 



338 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

English colonies in America was largely to find homes for 
the numbers of poor and needy persons who, as one writer 
said, "now trouble the commonwealth, and through 
want here at home are forced to commit many crimes." 
The man who wrote these words was Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert, and it was he who made the first attempt to 
gj^ found an English colony in America. He 

Humphrey was an older half-brother to Sir Walter 

Oilbert 

Raleigh; and like him, in their home by the 
sea in southwestern England, he had early Hstened to the 
tales of sailors and travelers, and been filled with a long- 
ing for a seafaring life. When he went to college he studied 
navigation and the art of war. He then served Queen 
Ehzabeth in Ireland, and also took part in the English 
expeditions to aid the Dutch in their war for freedom. 
It was twelve years before the defeat of the Armada that 
he wrote the words about colonizing America which are 
given above. As a result of his eagerness for this work, 
the Queen, two years later, granted him a charter to 
discover "heathen and barbarous lands," and to make 
settlements there of such English subjects "as shall 
willingly accompany him." 

With the aid of his half-brother, Raleigh, Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert fitted out eleven ships, in 1578, for a voyage 
His two westward; but the expedition was turned 
voyages against the Spaniards in Europe, and did not 

reach America. This unfortunate attempt cost Sir 
Humphrey almost his whole fortune; but five years 
later he succeeded in fitting out a second expedition. 
This time he reached Newfoundland, with four vessels. 
He found there thirty-six vessels, of different nations, 
engaged in fishing, which shows how important the 
Newfoundland fisheries already were. Gilbert took 
possession of the island in the name of Queen Elizabeth, 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 389 

and tried to found a colony there. But his settlers had 
largely been taken from English prisons, and proved 
idle and lawless. After a few weeks the attempt to found 
a colony was given up. One of the ships was sent back 
home, laden with the sick; and another vessel was soon 
lost, with all on board, by striking on a sandbank while 
exploring the coast to the southward. 

Gilbert then resolved to return homeward with the 
two vessels which remained to him. One of these, 
called the Squirrel^ was very small, being only Death of sir 
one-fourth the size of the smallest vessel with cSbeJt ^^^ 
which Columbus had made his first voyage. ^^^^^^ 
Because of the stormy weather, the other officers urged Gil- 
bert to come on board the larger vessel; but he replied: 

"I will not forsake my little company going homeward, 
with whom I have passed so many storms and perils." 

When half way back across the Atlantic, it was seen 
that the Squirrel was having a hard time of it in the 
stormy seas. But, as often as his vessel came near to 
the larger one, Gilbert was heard to shout bravely: 
**We are as near to Heaven by sea as by land!" These 
were the last words that he was known to speak. At 
midnight of that day the watch on board the larger 
vessel saw the lights on board the Squirrel suddenly 
disappear; and he cried out: "The general is cast 
away!" This proved only too true; for when morning 
dawned the little vessel was nowhere to be seen, nor was 
any trace ever found of its brave commander or his crew. 

Undiscouraged by the sad fate of his half-brother. 
Sir Walter Raleigh now took up the work of founding an 
English colony. The Queen granted him a l^^i^^j^'®*" 
charter like the one she had granted to Gilbert, |^nd^s ojjt_ 
but with this difference, — he was expressly tion 
forbidden to disturb the fishing vessels which were in the 



340 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



habit of going to Newfoundland. 
For this reason, the attempt to 
found a colony on Newfound- 
land was given up, and Raleigh 
turned his attention to lands 
farther south. He did not go him- 
self with his expedition, because 
Queen Elizabeth 
thought so highly of him 
that she did not want 
him to risk his life in 
such distant ventures. 
Instead, he appointed 
two captains, named 
Amadas and Barlow, to com- 
mand the two ships which 
he sent out. They left Eng- 
land in the spring of 1584. 
After sighting the West 
India islands, they sailed up 
the coast of Florida and 
the Carolinas until they 
came to Roanoke Island, 
lying between Pamlico 
Sound and Albe- 
marle Sound. 
Here the first 
attempt was to 
be made to found 
an English col- 
ony in what is 
now the territory 
of the United 
States. 




AN INDIAN WARRIOR 



From a drawing by Governor White. 

the way the body was painted 
with different colors 



Noli 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 341 

In the account of their voyage which the two captains 
gave to Raleigh, they said that the soil was "the most 
plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all The new 
the world." There was timber of large size caBed'^^ 
and many kinds, and many sweet-smelling ^'^^**^*^ 
trees and shrubs, including sassafras, which was then used 
in Europe as a medicine. There was plenty of fine 
fish and game; and melons, walnuts, cucumbers, gourds, 
peas, and beans, and different kinds of roots. The wild 
grapes were so plentiful that "in all the world the like 
abundance is not to be found." The natives, too, were 
"most gentle, loving, and faithful." When they were 
received by one of the chiefs, "he made all signs of joy 
and welcome, striking on his head and his breast, and 
afterward on ours, to show that we were all one, smiling 
and making signs the best he could of love and familiar- 
ity." The Indians loaded the voyagers with many 
gifts, and two of the tribe offered to go with them to 
England. When this favorable report was brought 
back, there was great enthusiasm in England. Elizabeth 
was called the Virgin Queen, because she never married; 
and she herself gave the name "Virginia," in her own 
honor, to the new land. 

Later reports showed that three important new plants 
were to be found in that country. The most important 
of these was maize, or Indian corn. "The Indian corn, 
grain of this," wrote one explorer, "is about aSd^tobacco 
the bigness of our ordinary English peas, and 
not much different in form and shape, but of different 
colors, — some white, some red, some yellow, and some 
blue." The height of the stalks, some growing ten feet 
tall, and the great yield of 500 to 700 grains to the ear, 
surprised the Europeans. "Of these grains," added this 
writer, "besides bread, the inhabitants make food either 



342 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 




INDIAN VILLAGE 
From a drawing by Governor White 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 343 

by parching them, or stewing them whole until they are 
broken, or boiling the meal with water into a mush." 
This new grain was to prove a great addition to the food 
supply of the whole world. 

The potato, which was also found in Virginia, was to 
prove of even greater value. It was described as "a 
kind of root of round form, some of the bigness of a wal- 
nut, some far greater, which grow many together as 
though they were fastened with a string." "Being 
boiled or stewed," the writer added, "they are very 
good food." The introduction of the potato did more 
than anything else, perhaps, to end the almost constant 
famines which in the Middle Ages distressed the different 
regions of Europe. 

The third new plant was tobacco. It was described 
as an herb "the leaves of which, when dried and made 
into powder, they smoke through pipes of clay." It 
was wrongly believed that its use was healthful, and that 
because of it the Indians were preserved from "many 
grievous diseases with which we in England are often 
times afflicted." Sir Walter Raleigh made the smoking 
of tobacco popular in England, and its use spread rapidly 
throughout the Old World. Upon the cultivation and 
export of this plant the success of the English colony 
in Virginia was finally to be based. 

As a result of the favorable reports of the new land, 
there was no difficulty in fitting out seven ships, in 1585, 
with many settlers, to found a colony there, j^^j^j j^.g 
There was some talk of having Sir Philip ^^^^^^'''^y 
Sidney command the expedition, but Queen 
EHzabeth was as unwilling to have him go as she was to 
have Raleigh make such a venture. Instead, a rash, 
fiery man named Grenville was chosen to command the 
expedition. This was very unfortunate, as we shall soon see. 



344 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

The settlers were landed on Roanoke Island, in July, 
1585. Through the Indians who had been taken to 
Harsh England the year before, and who had 

treatment learned English, they were now able to talk 
with the natives. But trouble soon broke 
out as a result of the harsh temper of the commander, 
Grenville. While exploring the shores of the mainland 
near Roanoke, a silver cup was stolen by the natives from 
the white men. Grenville returned to demand it, and 
when it was not given to him, he burned the Indian 
village and destroyed the corn in their fields. The re- 
sult was that the English lost the good will of the Indians, 
which on the former voyage had been shown them in 
such a marked manner. 

After spending about two months in the country, 
Grenville set sail for England. He left behind him 
a colony of about a hundred men, under the command of 
a gentleman named Lane. The settlers, instead of 
planting fields and clearing the wilderness, spent their 
time in hunting for a gold mine and a pearl fishery which 
they understood the Indians to say were in that part 
of the country. They found nothing of value, and 
their relations with the Indians became worse and worse. 

They depended upon the Indians for food; but next 
Return spring they found that the natives were 

to E^iland P^^nning to " ruu away " and leave their corn- 
(1586) fields on Roanoke Island unplanted, in order 

to starve out the colonists. Fear of the white men's 
terrible guns, and the advice of a friendly chief, led the 
Indians to abandon this plan. Soon after this the 
friendly chief died. Then the Indians formed a plan 
to surprise and kill the white men. Governor Lane 
learned of this plan from a captive Indian, and struck 
first. Taking a number of his best soldiers, he went to 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 345 

the chiefs, as though he wanted to talk to them; then 
suddenly he gave a signal, and nine of them were slain. 
Fortunately for the settlers, a fleet of English ships under 
Sir Francis Drake appeared off the coast a few days 
later, and he agreed to take the colonists back to England. 
A writer of that time says that "they left all things con- 
fusedly, as if they had been chased from thence by a 
mighty army." He adds: "And no doubt so they 
were, for the hand of God came upon them for the 
cruelty and outrages committed by some of them against 
the native inhabitants of that country." 

About two weeks after Governor Lane and his colo- 
nists had departed. Captain Grenville returned to 
Virginia with three ships, bringing supplies. He could 
learn nothing of what had become of the former colony. 
To keep possession of the country, he landed fifteen men 
on Roanoke Island, with plenty of provisions; and then 
he returned to England. 

Next year Sir Walter Raleigh sent out a second colony. 
It went in three vessels, and was under John White as 
governor, a gentleman who had been in the Raleigh's 
first colony under Governor Lane. For the colony 
first time women and children were included 
in the company. This was done because it was rightly 
thought that the men would be more likely to remain as 
settlers, and found homes in the New World, if their 
families went with them. When they reached Roanoke 
Island, the fifteen men who had been left there the year 
before had disappeared. A few human bones were 
found lying near the deserted houses. From some 
friendly Indians on the mainland it was learned that 
the settlers had been attacked by hostile natives, and 
had perished. 

Governor White wished to go to Chesapeake Bay, 



346 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

and found the new colony on its shores. But the cap- 
tain of the ships was in a hurry to attack the Spaniards 
Return of in the Wcst Indies, so he landed the colonists 
wwteTo on the ill-fated Roanoke Island. In those 
days ships were usually so small that it was 
impossible to carry a large number of colonists, and at 
the same time bring supplies enough to feed the colony 
for a long period. It was arranged, therefore, that 
Governor White should go back to England with the 
ships, in order to hasten on the sending of provisions 
and other needful things. He left behind him ninety 
men, seventeen women, and eleven children. One of 
these children was his own little granddaughter, who had 
been born since the party landed. Because she was the 
first English child born in America, she was named 
"Virginia" Dare. 

No one can tell what became of these colonists.' When 
Governor White reached England, he found the whole 
The colony nation busied with preparations for resisting 
desS-ted the Great Armada. One expedition which he 
*^'^^ led to the relief of his colony was turned back 

by the Spaniards. Three years passed before he actually 
succeeded in reaching Roanoke Island again. We can 
imagine the anxiety with which he must have searched 
for traces of his daughter and little granddaughter, and 
all the other colonists. But they were never found. 
The houses on the island had been pulled down, per- 
haps to help make the strong wooden stockade which 
now surrounded the spot where they had stood. Some 
chests which the settlers had evidently buried had been 
dug up by the Indians and robbed of their contents. 
On one of the trees was carved the word Croatoan, 
which was the name of an island about fifty miles down 
the coast, where the natives had been very friendly to 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 347 

the white men. It was supposed that the colonists had 
removed to that place, to escape the hostility of the 
Indians near Roanoke Island. Storms, however, and 
the loss of some of the ship's anchors, made the captains 
afraid to stay any longer on that dangerous coast. They 
returned to England, without searching farther, and it 
was some years before another expedition visited that 
region. 

Nothing was ever learned of the fate of this "Lost 
Colony." Most of its members must soon have perished, 
either from hunger or from the attacks of The Lost 
hostile Indians. Perhaps the children and Seve?^ 
women, and some of the men, were spared, ^^^^ ** 
and kept as captives. If so, they must gradually have 
lost their English ways and speech, as time went on, and 
become like the Indians among whom they lived. The 
attempt to found an English colony in Virginia had led 
to the death or disappearance of fully one hundred and 
fifty persons. Sir Walter Raleigh had spent so much 
money in these expeditions that he was practically 
ruined, and was obliged to give up all thought of further 
attempts. 

But this was not to be the end of English colonization 
in America. With every expedition English knowledge 
of America was increased, and English interest Beginning 
quickened. The conditions at home which permanent 

1 P 1 1 . -11 Englisli 

made men want to lound colonies still con- colonies 
tinned. King James L, who succeeded Elizabeth in 
1603, made peace with Spain; and the restless spirits, 
who had been gaining booty by plundering Spanish 
ships and colonies, then turned to the more useful work 
of building English settlements on the North Atlantic 
coast of America. Nineteen years after the disappear- 
ance of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, there were formed 



348 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

two rich and powerful companies in England, called the 
London Company and the Plymouth Company, to trade 
and settle in America. Under these companies there 
were then founded, first the Jamestown colony in Vir- 
ginia in 1607, and then the Plymouth colony in Massa- 
chusetts, in 1620. This was the beginning of the per- 
manent English colonies in America, from which grew, in 
course of time, our own United States. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. In what ways did the Indians of Virginia differ from the 

natives of Mexico? 

2. Eead Longfellow's poem entitled "Sir Humphrey Gilbert". 

3. Were the white men or the Indians mos-t to blame for the 

hostilities between them? Give your reasons. 

4. Compare the treatment of the Indians by Raleigh's settlers 

with their treatment by De Soto and the Spaniards. 

5. Which profited Europe most — the corn and potatoes of Vir- 

ginia, or the gold and silver of Mexico and Peru? Give 
your reasons. 

6. Find out what you can about Raleigh's subsequent imprison- 

ment, voyage to South America, and death. 

7. Find on maps in your geography Newfoundland, Albemarle 

Sound, Roanoke Island. 



XLII 

SUMMARY: THE GROWTH OF 
CIVILIZATION 

Points to be Noted 

The savage and barbarian stages of man's history; importance 
of the invention of writing. 

The Greeks receive civilization from Asia; what they added to it. 

What the Eomans added; rise of Christianity within the Eoman 
Empire. 

The Germans the heirs of the Romans; what the Middle Ages 
added; importance for us of English history. 

The Age of Discovery and the Reformation; dawn of the Mod- 
ern Age; the struggle for America; the United States 
inherits civilization from past ages. 

We end our story at the time when the permanent 
English colonies, from which grew the United States, 
were about to be established. In your later studies 
you will learn when, by whom, and how, each of these 
was founded; how the settlers had to struggle against 
the wilderness and against hostile Indians; how their 
numbers grew and their settlements flourished; how 
they helped England to conquer the French settlements 
in Canada; and how quarrels then arose between the 
colonists and the mother country which led to the War 
of the Revolution and the Declaration of Independence. 
All of this, and more, too, you will learn in your study 
of United States history. It only remains for us 
here to sum up the things which the colonists had 
inherited from preceding ages, and so show that our 
American civilization is really a continuation of that 
of Europe. 

349 



350 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

In the dim ages before history begins, men had learned 
to use fire, had invented the bow and arrow, and had 
savafieand ^^^"^ ^^ make pottery vessels of baked clay, 
barbarian in which to cook and to storc their food. With 
these inventions they passed from the condi- 
tion of savages to that of barbarians. Then had come 
the taming of the dog, horse, ox, sheep, and other 
domestic animals, to aid men in their labors and to supply 
them with more certain sources of food. This step was 
followed by the discovery of means of extracting iron 
from its ore, so making possible better weapons for 
fighting and better tools for working. In different 
lands, all over the globe, men made some or all of these 
discoveries. 

It was only in Asia and in Egypt, however, that the 
step was taken which first led men from barbarism to 
civilization. If you ask what this step was, the answer 
is that it was the invention of writing. With this 
invention it became possible for men to hand on more 
certainly to those who came after them a knowledge 
of their deeds, of their thoughts, and of their discoveries. 
Civilization, therefore, as opposed to savagery and 
barbarism, begins with the invention of writing. The 
Greeks were the first of European peoples to receive 
this invention from Asia; so it was with the Greeks that 
European civilization began. 

In the course of these stories you have learned some- 
thing of what constitutes civilization. It means not 
merely improvements in food, clothing, 
and civil- housiug, and the like. It means also the 

ization '^ 

development of better government, and more 
reasonable law, so that men may live and work in peace 
and safety. But even more it means the cultivation 
and ennobling of their minds and spirits, through science, 



THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION 351 

art, poetry, and religion. In all of these ways the Greeks 
made great advances; so if they owed much to Asia, 
from which they learned the first steps in civilization, 
after ages owe very much more to the ancient' Greeks, 
for what they themselves added. In the stories con- 
tained in this book we have tried to show some of the 
ways in which this is true. 

After the Greeks, the Romans took up the work of 
increasing and spreading civiHzation. They improved 



agriculture, organized a stronger government. 

Work 
of the 

how to construct roads, acqueducts, sewers, **'"^"® 



made a better system of law, and showed men of The 



and great public buildings. Above all, they conquered 
and organized as one world all the lands about the 
Mediterranean Sea, and in Western Europe as far as 
the borders of Scotland and the German forests. 
Christianity arose in this Roman Empire, and the fact 
that all its lands were under one rule made it easy for 
the Christian Church to spread abroad its message of a 
more spiritual religion and of nobler and holier ways 
of living. The Romans not only received what the 
Greeks had learned of civilization, and added to it their 
own improvements, but they carried these gifts to those 
countries of Western Europe from which were to come 
the principal discoverers and colonizers of America. 

The Germans became the heirs of the Romans. It 
is true that, when they overran the Roman Empire, 
they did not preserve all of Greek and Roman 
civilization; but they preserved much of it. Middle 
In the course of the Middle Ages, these frag- ^^^^ 
ments of civilization were combined, under the influence 
of the Christian Church, with the many good customs 
of the Germans, to produce the ideas and institutions 
of medieval Europe. The holy lives of many saints 



352 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

kept before men high ideals of purity and righteousness; 
and the institution of feudalism bound them together 
with ties of loyalty and protection. The great move- 
ment of the Crusades called forth qualities of heroism 
and self-sacrifice. Chivalry arose, and a new and ten- 
derer respect was born for women, little children, and 
the sick and helpless. Ancient Greece and Rome cared 
little and did little for the poor, the lowly, and the 
helpless. It was in the Middle Ages that the Christian 
idea was first spread about of the duty of helping the 
weak and unfortunate. So, civiHzation owes much, 
on the side of tenderness and humanity, as well as on 
the side of romance, to "the rough impetuous Middle 
Ages." 

In the Middle Ages, also, was formed that kingdom 
of England from which especially came our forefathers 
and our American civilization. Its conquest by the 
Germans, its slow growth into a single kingdom, its 
strengthening by the Norman Conquest, the winning 
of the Great Charter from the tyranny of King John, 
and the development of the institutions of Parliament 
and constitutional government, are all of interest and 
of importance for us. 

But if the Middle Ages were a time when civilization 
was being transformed into something richer and better, 
they were also a time when there was much 
of the ignorance, superstition, and intellectual dark- 

ness. Slowly this darkness began to lift. 
Pilgrimages and commerce gradually brought on the 
Period of Discovery. The invention of the compass, gun- 
powder, and printing changed men's ways of living and 
of thinking. The Reformation in religion made their 
spirits more free; and, at the same time, there was 
revealed to Europe a vast New World in the West. 



THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION 353 

The Modern Age thus dawned upon Europe; and one 
of its chief tasks has been the founding in America of a 
new Europe, peopled by settlers from the Old World, 
and enlightened by all the civilization which bygone 
centuries have developed. Spain, as we have seen, was 
the first country to seize upon America. But political 
and religious rivalries in Europe so weakened her power 
that she was not able to keep other European nations 
from settling in that land. First England and France, 
then the Dutch, then Sweden, were to found settlements 
on the Atlantic coast of North America. And out of 
these settlements there was to grow, in course of time, 
our own free United States of America, — the heir of all 
the civilization of the past, to which it -has made many 
new and noble contributions of its own. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Name some peoples who today are still in the savage or bar- 

barian stages of culture. 

2. Show how the discovery of fire, and the invention of the bow 

and arrow, and of pottery, were great steps in advance. 

3. Which was more important, the invention of writing, or 

the invention of printing? Why? 

4. State briefly what the Greeks, the Eomans, and the Ger- 

mans each contributed to civilization. 

5. How did Christianity advance civilization? 

6. What did the English contribute to civilization? 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 



Names and events inserted for the sake of completeness, but not 
mentioned in the text, are printed in italic type. 



B.C 

1 



GREECE 



B.C 



ROME 



753. Rome founded (legendary 
date). 

509. The kings driven out and a 
republic set up. 

509-345. Frequent wars with 
neighboring peoples. 

494. Secession of the plebeians. 
Beginning of the struggle between 
classes in Rome. 

390. Battle by the brook Allia; 
Rome captured by the Gauls. 

367. Plebeians admitted to the 
consulship. Thereafter all dis- 
tinctions between patricians 
and plebeians gradually wiped 
out. 

343-266. Wars for the conquest 
of Italy. Italy conquered up to 
the valley of the River Po. 



93-1184. Trojan War (legen- 
dary dates). 

500-479. Greek Wars with Per- 
sia. Battle of Marathon (490) ; 
battles of Thermopylae and 
Salamis (480). 

444-429. Pericles rules Athens. 

431-404. Peloponnesian War be- 
tween Athens and Sparta. 

399. Socrates put to death. 

338. Greece conquered by Philip 
of Macedonia. 

336-323. Reign of Alexander the 
Great. Expedition against Per- 
sia (334); battle of Granicus 
(334); battle of Issus (333); 
founding of Alexandria (333); 
battle of Arbela (331); expedi- 
tion to India (327); death of 
Alexander (323) 

264-241. First war between Rome and Carthage. Rome gains 
Sicily and (later) Sardinia. 

218-201. Second war with Carthage. Hannibal marches from Spain 
into Italy (218); he defeats the Romans in the battles of the 
Ticinus and of the Trebia (218), and at Lake Trasimene (217). 
Terror at Rome. Fabius Maximus wisely avoids a battle {''Fabian 
tactics^'); his successor rashly attacks the Carthaginians and is 
terribly defeated at Cannae (216); Hannibal's brother defeated 
and slain (207); Scipio expels the Carthaginians from Spain 
(206); Scipio carries the war into Africa (204); Hannibal recalled 
to Carthage (203); Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama (202); end 
of the war (201). Carthage surrenders Spain to Rome, agrees to 
pay tribute, and to destroy all of its warships except ten. 

183. Death of Hannibal. 

149-146. Third War with Carthage. Carthage captured and 
destroyed. 

146. Macedonia (with Greece) becomes a Roman province. 

354 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 355 

133. Asia Minor becomes a Roman province. 

133-121. Attempts of the Gracchi brothers to improve the lot of the poor 

freemen of Rome; Tiberius Gracchus killed by the richer citizens 

(133); Cains Gracchus slain (121). 
88-82. Civil war between Marius, supported by the poorer citizens, and 

Sulla, supported by the richer citizens. Triumph of the richer 

citizens. 
58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar; victory over Vercin- 

getorix (52). 
55-54. Caesar's invasions of Britain. 
49-45. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey, and their supporters. 

Caesar makes himself sole ruler of Rome. 
44. Caesar murdered by Brutus and other conspirators. 
31 B.C.-14 A.D. Roman Empire established. Rule of Augustus as 

Emperor. 

A.D. 

64. Fire at Rome; persecution of the Christians by the Emperor 

Nero. 
79. Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. 
312 The Emperor Constantine becomes the protector of the Christians. 
323-337. Constantine sole ruler. The Empire becomes Christian. 

Constantinople founded as the capital of the Empire (330). 
375. The Goths cross the Danube and enter the Empire; battle of 

Adrianople (378). 
395. Death of the Emperor Theodosius; separation of the Empire 

into an Eastern half and a Western half. 
410. Sack of Rome by the Goths under Alaric; death of Alaric: his 

followers settle in Spain. 
449. Coming of the English to Britain. 
476. End of the Roman Empire in the West. 
481-511. Clovis founds the Prankish kingdom in Gaul. 
597. Augustine goes to Britain to convert the EngUsh; the King 

of Kent converted; gradual conversion of the rest of England. 
622. Mohammed's flight from Mecca {the " Hegira'); founding of the 

Mohammedan religion; death of Mohammed (632). 
711. The Goths in Spain conquered by Mohammedans from Africa. 
732. The Mohammedans defeated by the Franks at Tours, in southern 

France. 
800. Charlemagne, King of the Franks, crowned Emperor by the Pope 

at Rome. 
828. England united under a single King (Egbert of Wessex). 
871-901. Reign of King Alfred in England; his treaty with the 

Danes. 



356 THE STORY OF EUROPE 

911. The King of France grants the duchy of Normandy to Rolf 
the Northman. 

1000. Discovery of North America by the Northman, Lief the Lucky. 

1016-1035. Rule of the Danish King Canute in England. 

1042-1066. Edward the Confessor, King of England. 

1066. Norman Conquest of England. William, Duke of Normandy, 
overthrows Harold, the English King, in the battle of Hastings. 

1095. Council of Clermont. Pope Urban H. calls the First Crusade. 

1096-1099. First Crusade. Capture of Jerusalem and founding of 
the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 

1147-1149. Second Crusade. 

1187. Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, the Mohammedan ruler. 

1189-1192. Third Crusade. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa 
drowned (1190). Richard the Lion-Hearted takes Acre (1191). 

1202-1204. Fourth Crusade, directed by the Venetians against 
Constantinople. A Latin Empire established in the East {over- 
thrown by the Greeks in 1261). 

1199-1214. Reign of King John of England. Loss of Normandy 
(1204); he becomes the vassal of the Pope (1213); he is forced 
to grant the Great Charter (1215). 

1213. Knights of the shire added to the Great Council in England; 
beginning of Parliament. 

1265. Simon of Montfort adds borough representatives to Par- 
liament. 

1295. Model Parliament of King Edward L 

1299. Marco Polo describes his travels. 

1337-1453. Hundred Years' War between England and France. 
England loses all her possessions in France except Calais. 

1380. Victory of Venice over Genoa at Chioggia; Venice becomes 
the leading commercial city. 

1450. Invention of printing by John Gutenberg. 

1453. Capture of Constantinople by the Turks. End of the Eastern 
Roman Empire. 

1455-1485. Wars of the Roses in England. 



EXPLORATIONS AND EVENTS IN EUROPE 

SETTLEMENTS 

1486. Diaz rounds the Cape of 
Good Hope. 

1492, Oct 12. Columbus dis- 1494. France attempts to conquer 

covers America. /^^/^ Beginning of the wars 

1497. John Cabot discovers New- between France and Spain over 

foundland, etc. Italy. 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 



357 



EXPLORATIONS AND 
SETTLEMENTS 

1498. Vasco da Gama reaches 
India. 

1513. Balboa discovers the Pa- 
cific Ocean. 

1513. Ponce de Leon discovers 
Florida. 

1519-1521. Voyage of Magellan. 

1519-1521. Cortez conquers 
Mexico. 

1524. Explorations of Verra- 
zano. 

1531-1532. Pizarro conquers 
Peru. 

1534-1543. Car tier's explora- 
tions. 

1540-1542. Explorations of Cor- 
onado in the Southwest. 

1542. De Soto discovers the 
Mississippi River. 

1564. Destruction of the French 
colony at Ft. Caroline by 
Spaniards. 

1577-1580. Voyage of Sir Fran- 
cis Drake around the world. 

1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
attempts to colonize New- 
foundland. 

1584. Voyage of Amadas and 
Barlow to "Virginia." 

1585. Raleigh's first colony on 
Roanoke Island. 

1587. Raleigh's second colony 
on Roanoke Island (the "Lost 
Colony"). 

1607. Founding of the James- 
town colony in Virginia. 

1620. Founding of the Plymouth 
colony in Massachusetts. 



EVENTS IN EUROPE 



1515-1547. Reign of Francis L, 

King of France. 
1517. Reformation begun in 

Germany (Martin Luther). 
1519-1556. Emperor Charles V. 

rules Spain, Germany, the 

Netherlands, parts of Italy 

and of America. 

1534. Henry VIII. separates 
England from the Catholic 
Church. 

1558-1603. Reign of Queen 
Elizabeth of England. 

1562-1598. Religious Wars in 
France. 

1568-1648. Revolt of the Nether- 
lands against Spain. Capture 
of Brille by the "Sea Beggars" 
(1572); siege of Leyden (1574); 
sack of Antwerp by Spanish 
troops (1576) ; Union of Utrecht 
formed by the seven northern 
(Dutch) provinces (1579); 
the seven provinces issue a 
declaration of independence 
(1581); murder of William of 
Orange (1584); truce made 
between the Dutch Nether- 
lands and Spain (1609); Spain 
recognizes the independence 
of the Dutch Netherlands 
(1648). 

1587. Execution of Mary, Queen 
of Scots. 

1588. Destruction of the Spanish 
Armada by England. 

1603-1625. James I. (son of 
Mary, Queen of Scots) King 
of England and Scotland. 

1618-1648. Great Religious War 
in Germany {"Thirty Years' 
War"). 



INDEX 

Diacritical Marks: a as in late; a as in fat; a as in far; a as in care; e as in me; g 
as in 7net; e as in there; g as in gem; i as in ice; i as in tin; 6 as in note; 6 as in not; 6 as 
in for. Italic letters are silent. 



Achilles (a-WI'les) , 11-13. 

Ac'co-lade, 190. 

Acre (a'ker), siege of, 247. 

Ac-rop'o-lls, of Athens, 17, 31-34, 181. 

Ad-ri-a-no'ple, battle of, 126. 

Ae-ge'an Sea, 19. 

/4e-qui'ans, 56, 58-59. 

Africa, coast explored, 264-266. 

Ag-a-mem'non, King, 9, 11. 

Agriculture, medieval, 194-195. 

Al'ar-ic, 126-128. 

A-le'si-a (-shT-a), 87. 

Al-ex-an'der the Great, 40-44, 46. 

Al-ex-an'dri-a, 47, 48. 

Al'fred, King, 147-154. 

Al'U-a, battle, 62. 

Al'va, Duke of, 322, 323. 

Am'a-das, Captain, 340. 

America, discovered by Northmen, 146; 
by Columbus, 275, 276; naming of, 280. 

Am'ster-dam, rise of, 325. 

Angles, 135, 139. 

An'ti-oeh, 237-240. 

Ant'werp, 305, 320, 323. 

Aph-ro-di'te (Venus), 6, 11. 

A-p61'l6 , 6, 23. 

Aqueducts, Roman, 76, 77. 

Arabic numerals, 251. 

Ar'ab, conquests of, 230. 

A-ri-6-vTs'tus, 88. 

Ar'ls-tot-le, 270. 

Ar-ma'da, the great, 329-334. 

Ar'thiir, King, 137-139, 309. 

Arthur, nephew of King John, 163. 

Ath'gl-ne^/, 148. 

A-the'na (Miner'va), 6, 11, 32, 33, 34. 

Ath'ens, 15, 17, 18; in Persian wars, 19-21, 
23, 25-28; under Pericles, 30-34; puts 
Socrates to death , 37 ; war with Sparta, 39 . 

Au'gus-tine, missionary, 141, 142. 

Au-gus'tus, Emperor, 94, 105, 118. 

Az'tecs, 289-291. 



Bal-bo'a,281,282. 

Bar'low, Captain, 340. 

Bayard (bl'ard), 312-314. 

Bgck'et, Saint Thomas, 226, 228. 

Bede, 153. 

"Beggars, The," 323. 

Ben'e-dict, Saint, 216, 220, 223. 

Ber'nard, Saint, 224. 

Blon-del', 248. 

Boj-a-dor', Cape, 265. 

Books, Roman, 103; medieval, 220, 221; 

printed, 264. 
Bra-zir, 297. 
Brl'tam, Caesar's invasions of, 89; Roman 

conquest, 89, 90, 94; English conquest, 

136-139. See England. 
Bru'tus, 93. 

Cab'ot, John, 278, 279. 

Cae'sar, JuHus, 81-93. 

Cal'i-ciit, 266. 

California, discovered, 307; Spanish 
missions in, 296. 

Cal'vln, John, 299. 

Can'a-da,315,316,317. 

Can'nae, battle of, 72. 

Cannon, introduction of, 254. 

Can't^r-bur-y, archbishopric, 142; pil- 
grimages to, 226, 227. 

Can-uttf', King, 155. 

Cap'r-tol, Roman, 62-67, 79. 

Car'thage, 68; wars with Rome, 69-75; 
destroyed, 75. 

Car-6-li'na, Fort, 316. 317. 

Cartier (car-tya'), Jacques, 315, 316. 

Castles, 178-184; life in, 184-191; in 
Palestine, 242; abandoned, 308. 

Catacombs, Roman, 109. 

Cathedrals, Gothic, 203, 208, 209, 215. 

Central America, discovered, 277, 280. 

Champlain (sham-plan'). 315, 316. 

Chariot races, 83. 



360 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Charles V., Emperor, 299, 311, 314, 319, 

321. 
Charter, the Great, 164-168, 176. 
Chau'cer, 228. 
Chimneys, 198, 307. 
China, 260, 261, 315. 
Chiv'al-ry. See Knighthood. 
Christianity, in Roman Empire, 105-113; 
accepted by Goths, 124; by Pranks, 
132; by English, 141, 142; by Danes in 
England, 149; conversion of Indians to, 
290, 295, 296. 
Church, organization of,. 112, 113; use of 
Latin language, 143; in the Middle 
Ages, 213-225; divided by the Reform- 
ation, 299. 
Cin-cm-nat'us, 56-60. 
Civilization, nature of, 116, 350; derived 
from Asia and Egypt, xii, 350; Greek, 
3-8, 35, 45-48; Roman, 48, 76-80, 83, 
94-104; spread into Gaul, 88; into 
Britain, 90; ancient German, 114-122; 
medieval, 159-161, 178-229; native 
Mexican, 285, 289; spread of European 
to America, ix, xii, 277, 295, 296; 
summary of growth, 349-353. 
Clara, Saint, 216. 
Cler'mont, Council, 232. 
Cloister (cloy'ster), 218, 219. 
Clo-til'da, Queen, 132. 
Clo'vis, King, 131-133, 213. 
Colonization, Greek, 45. 46; beginning of 

English, 337-348. 
Coligny (co-lenye'), 316, 335, 337. 
Columbus, Christopher, youth of, 269; 
plans westward voyage, 270; his great- 
ness, 270, 271, 278; mistaken idea of the 
globe, 271; Queen Isabella aids, 272, 
273; first voyage, 273-276; reception 
on return, 276, 277; later voyages, 277; 
death, 277; religious motive of, 295. 
Comfort, increase of, 308. 
Com-po-stel'la, pilgrimages to, 226. 
Commerce, Athenian, 18; of Alexandria. 
47; of Carthage, 68; medieval, 202; 
increased by Crusades, 252; Venetian, 
254-258, 266; Portuguese, 266, 267; 
English, 305: Dutch, 320, 321. 
Commons, House of, 170, 174. 
Communes. See Towns, medieval. 
Compass, 263, 274. 



Conrad III., of Germany, 243. 

Con'stan-tlne, Emperor, 110. 

C6n-stan-ti-n6'ple, 111, 124, 230, 231; 
Crusaders at, 234, 235, 236; taken by 
Fourth Crusade, 249; Venetians in, 253. 

Corn, Indian, 341-343. 

Cor-6-na'do, 292. 

Cor'tes, Her-nan'do. 285-290. 

Council of Blood, 322. 

Cross-staff, 274. 

Crusades, definition, 230, 233; origin, 232, 
233; First, 233-241; Second, 243; Third,' 
244-248; Fourth, 249, 250; l^ter Cru- 
sades, 250; end of, 250; results of, 251-258. 

Cuba, discovery of, 276. 

Curfew, 210. 

Da Ga'ma. See Gama. 

Danelaw, 149, 155. 

Danes, in England, 147-150, 151, 155. 

Dare, Virginia, 346. 

Da-rl'us King, 19, 20, 21. 

Del'phi, 6, 25, 35. 

De So'to, 292, 293. 

Diaz (de'as), Bartholomew, 265, 266. 

Dom'in-ic, Saint, 216. 

Donjon (diin'jun), of castle, 182. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 305-307, 329, 330, 

330-332, 345. 
Dress, Elizabethan display in, 308. 
Dutch, revolt of, 319-326; settlements in 

America, 325; what we learned from 
them, 325, 326. 

East An'gli-a, 139. 

Education, Roman, 101-103; medieval, 
222. 

Edward I., King, 174. 

Edward the Confessor, 155, 156. 

Egypt, ix, 43, 47, 243, 350. 

E-liz'a-beth, Queen, 300, 303, 309,310; aids 
the Dutch, 327-329; war with Philip 
II., 329-334; aids American colonization, 
338, 339; Virginia named for, 341. 

Empire, Eastern, 230, 231, 234, 249. 

Empire, Western, 122-133. 

England, founding of, 135-138; seven 
kingdoms, 139; government, 139, 140; 
conversion, 141, 142; becomes single 
kingdom, 143, 144; Danes in, 147, 148- 
151, 154, 155; under Edward the Con- 



INDEX 



361 



fessor, 155, 156; Harold King of, 156, 
157; Norman Conquest, 154-16'2; under 
King John, 163-168; a papal fief, 164; 
Great Charter granted, 166; rise of 
Pailiament, 169-176; Richard the Lion- 
Heart ed, 244-249; Hundred Years' War, 
298; War of the Roses, 298; Reformation 
in, 300; under Elizabeth, 297-310; aids 
Netherlands, 824, 327-329; defeats 
Armada, 327-335; begins to colonize 
America, 335, 337-348. 

Er'ics-son, Leif, 146, 147. 

Es'sex, 139. 

Eth'el-red, King, 148. 

E-trus'ctins, 53, 54. 

Europe, geography of, 2, 3; receives civil- 
ization from Asia, 350; American 
civilization comes from, 1, 2, 352, 353. 

Fairs, medieval, 210, 211. 

Falconry, 186-188. 

Famines, medieval, 199, 343. 

Far East, routes to, 253; travels of Polo 
family, 259-262; Portuguese attempts to 
reach, 264-266; Vasco da Gama's 
voyage, 266; Columbus attempts to 
reach, 270, 271. 

Feudalism, 159-161; in Palestine, 242. 

Fisheries, American, 280, 314, 315, 338. 

Flor'ence, 203. 

Flor'i-da,discovery,291; French in, 316,317. 

For'iim, Roman, 63, 79. 

France, origin of name, 133; under Clovis, 
131-133; Northmen settle Normandy, 
145; Normandy recovered, 164; medie- 
val towns in, 203; wars with England, 
298; with Spain, 311-317; religious 
wars in, 316; explores and settles Amer- 
ica, 314-317; aids Netherlands, 324. 

Fran'cis, Saint, 216. 

Francis I., King of France, 312-314, 315. 

Franks, settle in Gaul, 130-133. 

"Franks," name given Crusaders, 237, 242. 

Fred'er-ick Bar-ba-ros'sa, 244, 245. 

Fri'ars, 216, 295, 296. 

Furniture, medieval peasant, 199; in 
Elizabethan England, 308. 

Galleys, 10, 317, 330. 

Ga'ma, Vas'co da, 266. 

Games, Olympic, 8, 37; Roman, 83. 



Gaul, conquered by Rome, 81, 85-88; 
Goths in, 128; Franks settle in, 130; 
becomes France, 133. 

Gauls, in Northern Italy, 61, 85, 93; 
capture Rome, 62-67. 

Geese, Rome saved by, 66. 

Gen'o-a, 203, 252; rivalry with Venice, 258. 

Germans, ancient, Caesar's conflict with,88- 
89; location, 114-115; appearance, 115; 
life of, 114-122; invade Roman Em- 
pire, 128-133; heirs to the Romans, 351. 

Germany, under Charles V., 311; Reform- 
ation in, 299. 

Gll'bert, Sir Humphrey, 338, 339. 

Glad'1-fi-tors, 83, 100. 

Globe, the earth a, 48, 265, 270, 271; cir- 
cumnavigations of, 282-284, 306, 307. 

Good Hope, Cape of, 265, 266, 284, 307. 

Goths, 22; converted, 124; enter Roman 
Empire, 125-126; battle of Adrianople, 
126; sack Rome, 127; settle in Gaul and 
Spain, 128; overthrown by Moors, 128. 

Gra-na'da, 272. 

Great Council, 168, 170; becomes Parlia- 
ment, 170-176. 

Great Lakes, 316. 

Greece, geography of, 3; religion, 3-8; war 
with Troy, 9-14; wars with Persia, 
19-29; wars between cities of, 39; 
conquered by Macedonia, 39; aids 
Alexander against Persia, 41; culture 
of, 18, 45-48, 350; colonies of, 19, 45, 46; 
conquered by Romans, 44. 

Greenland, 145, 146, 262,263. 

Gregory the Great, Pope, 141, 153. 

Gren-ville, Captain, 344, 345. 

Guilds, medieval, 208. 

Gunpowder, 254, 263. 

Gu'ten-berg, John, 264. 

Hall, feudal, 184, 185, 308. 
Ha'des (Pluto), 5. 
Ha-mil'car Bar'ca, 69, 70. 
Han'm-bal. 69-75. 
Hai'old, King, 156-159. 
Hast'ings, battle of, 157-159. 
Hayti (ha'tee), 276. 
Hec'tor, 11-13. 
Hel'en, 9, 14. 
Hel'les-pont, 22, 28. 
Hen'gist, 136. 



362 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



Henry, the Navigator, 264, 265. 

Henry VIII., King, 300, 302. 

He'ra (Juno), 6, 11. 

Hol'land, 320. 

Holy Land. See Palestine. 

Ho'mer, 45. 

Ho-ra'tius (-shus), 53, 54. 

Hor'sa, 136. 

Horses, in conquest of Mexico, 286, 288. 

Hos'pi-tal-Iers, Knights, 243. 

Houses, Roman, 97, 98; ancient German, 

116, 117; in Elizabethan England, 

307, 308. 
How'ard, Lord, 332. 
Hundred Years' War, 298. 
Hurling machines, 240. 
Huns. 124, 125. 

Iceland, 145. 

Independence, Dutch declaration of, 323. 

India, 265, 266, 270, 271, 277. 

Indians, American, 276, 281, 288-296, 
341, 344-347. 

In'ter-dict, 164, 213. 

Is'a-bel-la, Queen, 272, 273. 

I'ta-ly, Greek colonies in, 46, 49; geog- 
raphy of, 49-51; conquered by Rome, 
67; Gauls in, 61-67; Goths in, 126-128; 
medieval cities of, 202, 203; wars over, 
311,313. 

James I., King, 347. 

Jamestown, 348. 

Je-rQ'sa-lem, 230, 231, 240, 241, 242 

244, 248. 
Jes'u-its, 295. 
John, King, 163-167, 298, 
Ju'pl-ter. See Zeus. 
Jury trial, 171. 
Jutes, 135, 139. 

Keep, of castle, 182. 
Kenll-worth, 309. 
Kent, 139, 141, 142. 

Knighthood, training for, 185-188; con- 
ferring of, 188-191; decline of, 312. 
Kublai Khan (koo'bla kan), 260, 261. 

La-drones', islands, 283. 
Lance, the Holy, 239. 
Lane, Governor, 344, 345. 
Lang'tSn, Stephen, 164, 165. 



Las Ca'sas, 294. 

Latitude, determination of, 274. 

Leicester (les'ter), Earl of, 309. 

Le-6n'i-das, King, 24, 25. 

Leyden (li'den), siege of, 324. 

Leif, the Lucky. See Ericsson, Leif . 

London, under the Romans, 90; under 

Alfred, 150; causes of greatness, 150, 

151; growth of, 305. 
Longitude, determination of, 274. 
Lords, House of, 170, 174. 
Louis VII., of France, 243. 
Lost Colony, the, 346, 347. 
Low Countries. See Netherlands. 
Lu'ther, Martin, 299. 

Ma-ce-don'K-a, conquers Greece, 39; con- 
quers Persia, 41-44; conquered by 
Romans, 76, 78. 

Ma-gel'lan, 282-284, 295. 

Mag'na Car'ta. See Charter, the Great. 

Man'lr-us, Mar'cus, 66, 67. 

Mar'a-thon, battle of, 21, 28, 32. 

Miir'co Po'lo, 277. 

Martyrs (mar'ters). Christian, 109-111. 

Mary, Queen of England, 300, 301. 

Mary, Queen of Scotland, 302, 303, 329. 

Masques (mSsks), 309. 

Men-g-la'us, King, 9, 11, 14. 

Me-nen'dez (-deth), 317, 335. 

Mercia (mer'shl-a), 139. 

Mex'r-c6, discovered, 285; conquered by 
Cortes, 285-290; Spanish rulein, 295, 296. 
Mll'an, duchy of, 311. 
Military Orders, 243. 
Mll-tl'a-des, 20, 21, 28. 
Ml-ner'va. See Athena. 
Missions, Spanish, 295, 296. 
Mls-sls-sTp'pI River, discovered, 293. 
Model ParHament, 174. 
Mo-ham'med, 230. 
Monks, 113, 143, 216-225. 
M6n-te-zu'ma, 289, 290. 
Mont'fort, Simon of, 172, 
Mon-tre-al', 315. 
Moors, 272. 
Myths, nature of, 15. 

Na'ples, kingdom of, 311. 
Navigation, aids to, 274. 
Ne'ro, Emperor, 107, 108. 



INDEX 



363 



Neth'er-lands, 319-321; under Philip II., 
321, 322; revolt of, 323-325; gain inde- 
pendence, 325; importance of, for Amer- 
ica, 325, 326. 

New'foiind-land, 279, 280, 305, 314, 
338, 339. 

New Spain, 290. 

New World, discovery of, 146, 275-277. 

Nl-ce'a, 237, 238. 

Nor'man-dy, 145, 164. 

Normans, 145, 156-159, 162, 234, 235. 

North America, 279, 280, 282. 

Northmen, raids of, 145, 147-150, 151, 155; 
discover Iceland and Greenland, 145, 
146; discover America, 146, 147, 262. 
See also Danes. 

Nor-thum'ber-land, 139, 143. 

Nuns, 216. 

0-lym'pi-a, 8, 34, 37. 
O-rt-no'co River, 277. 
Ot'to-man Turks, 263. 

Pacific Ocean, 261, 282-284, 306, 307. 

Pag'eants, Elizabethan, 309. 

Pal'a-tme, hill, 53. 

Pal'es-tine, 43, 226-231. 

Pa/m'ers, 229. 

Pa'pa-cy, 215. 

Pan-a-ma', 281, 291, 306. 

Par'is, son of Priam, 9, 13, 14. 

Parliament (par'le-ment), 169-176. 

Par'the-non, 33. 

Pa-tri'cians (-shuns), 54-56, 67. 

Paul, the Apostle. 105, 107. 

Peace, the Roman, 94. 

Peasants, medieval, 192-200. 

Per'i-cles, 30-34. 

Persecutions of Christians, 107-111. 

Persia (per'shi-a), 19, 21, 29; Alexander 

conquers, 41-44. 
Pe-ru', conquest of, 291. 
Peter, the Apostle, 107, 112. 
Peter, the Hermit, 233, 234. 
Phei-dip'pi-des, 20. 
Phil'ip Augiis'tus, 244-249. 
Philip, of Macedonia, 39-41. 
Philip II., of Spain, 300, 316, 317, 320- 

322,324,325,330,334. 
Phil'ip-pine (-peen)Islands, 283. 
Philosopher, meaning of, 35. 



Pi'late, P6n'tT-us, 105. 
Pilgrimages, medieval, 226-229, 250. 
Pisa (pe'za), 203. 
Pl-zar'ro, 291. 
Ple-be'ians, 45-56, 67. 
Ply'mouth Colony, 348. 
Pnyx, at Athens, 30. 
Po'lo family, travels of, 259-262. 
Pol'y-carp, 109-111. 

Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), destruction of, 95; 
excavation of, 96; remains of, 96-100. 
Pope,the, 112, 215,297, 299. 
Port-cul'lis (of castle), 181. 
Por'tu-gal, 264-267, 271,272,297,327,330. 
Po-sei'don (Neptune), 5, 33. 
Potato, 343. 

Presbyterian Church, 299. 
Pri'am, King, 9, 14. 
Printing, 263, 264, 296. 
Prot'es-tants, 299. 
Ptol'e-my, 48, 270. 
Pu-eb'loes, Indian, 292. 

Que-bec', 315. 

Raleigh (ra'le). Sir Walter, 303, 304, 
338-347. 

Reformation, the, 299, 300, 311, 321. 

Re'mus, 52. 

Representative government, lack of under 
Romans, 91; rise in England, 170, 171. 

Richard the Lion-Hearted, 184, 244-249. 

Roads, Roman, 77, 78, 90. 

Ro-a-noke' Island, 340, 341, 343-347. 

Roman Empire, 91-94, 122-133, 351. 

Roman numerals, 251. 

Rome, early days of, 51-53; republic 
estabUshed, 53; wars with neighbors, 
53-54, 56-59; struggles between classes, 
54-56, 67; Gauls in, 63-67; conquers 
Italy, 67; wars with Carthage, 68-75; 
rules Mediterranean lands, 76; adopts 
Greek culture, 48, 351; conquers Gaul, 
85-88; conquers Britain, 89, 90; cor- 
ruption in, 78, 80; becomes an empire, 
91-94; becomes Christian, 105-111; 
burned under Ntro, 107; sacked by 
Goths, 126. 

Rom'u-liis, 52, 53. 

Rub'i-con River, 93. 

St. Au'giis-tlne, Florida, 317. 



364 



THE STORY OF EUROPE 



St. Augustine, missionary, 141, 142. 

St. Ben'e-dict, 216, 220, 223. 

St. Ber'nard, 224. 

St. Clara, 216. 

St. Dom'if-nic, 216. 

St. Lawrence River, 315. 

St. Sc/jo-las'ti-cii, 216. 

Sal'a-dm, 243, 244, 247. 

Sal'a-mis, battle of, 26-28. 

San Sai'va-dor, 276. 

Saucy Castle, 183, 184. 

Saxons, 135, 139. 

Sci'pi-o Af-ri-ca'nus, 74. 

ScrTp-tor'i-iim, 220. 

"Sea Beggars," 323. 

Sea of Darkness, 274. 

Sbakp'spearp, William, 310. 

Ships, Greek, 10; Venetian, 254; of 

Armada, 330. 
Shops, PompeiaTi, 99; medieval, 207, 208. 
Si'ci-Iy, 46, 68, 69, 311. 
Sid'ney, Sir Philip, 328, 329, 343. 
Slavery, 200, 294, 305. 
Soc'ra-tes, 35-38, 45. 
South America, 277, 280, 291. 
South Sea. See Pacific Ocean. 
Spain, Carthaginians in, 69, 70; conquered 
by Rome, 74; Goths settle in, 128; 
Moors in, 128, 272; aids Columbus^ 
272, 273; conquests in America, 276, 277, 
281, 282, 285-297; in Philippine' 
Islands, 283; European wars of, 298. 
299, 311; attacked by English sailors,' 
305-307; Dutch revolt against, 319- 
325; Great Armada of, 327-335; decline 
of, 335. 
Spar'ta, 15, 16; in Persian -? ars, 20, 23-28; j 

war with Athens, 39. 
Spices, use of, 252; Venetian trade in, 255. 
Stephen, Count (of Blois), 237-239. 
StiVi-cho, 126. 
Sus'sex, 139. 

Switzerland, Reformation in, 299. 
Temp'lars, Knights, 243, 244. 
Tt'Q'to-berg Forest, 118. 
Teutonic Knights, 243. 
The-mis'to-cles, 25-28. 
Th^r-mo'py-lae, 23-25. 
Thor, 120, 132, 140. 
Tobacco, 343. 
To'ga (Roman garment), 57, 103. 



Tos-ca-nel'll, 270. 

Towns, medieval, 201-212. 

Triumph, Roman, 78, 79. 

Trin'i-dad, 277. 

Troy, 9-14. 

Turks (Seljukian), 230, 231, 234, 238-241 

243, 244; Ottoman, 263. 
T.vr (German God), 120. 
Tyre, 244. 

Ul'fil-as, 124. 

Ur'ban II., Pope, 232, 233. 

V'trecht, Union of, 323. 

Val-hal'la, 120. 

Va'rus, 118. 

Ven'icf, 203, 228, 249, 250, 252, 258, 263 

266. 
Ve'nus. Sfp Aphrodite. 
Ver'a Cruz, 288. 
Ver-cin-get'6-rTx, 85-88. 
Ver-ra-zan'o, 314, 315. 
Ves-pu'cius (-shi-us), Amer'i-cus, 280, 281 . 
Ve-su'vi-us, 95. 
Victory, goddess of, 32, 34. 
Vik'ings. See Northmen. 
Villages, medieval, 192-200. 
Vil'lams, medieval, 159, 192-200. 
Vin'land, 146. 
Virginia, 341-343. 
Virginia Dare, 346. 
Vows, monastic, 223, 224. 

Walter the Penniless, 233-235 
War of the Roses, 298, 308. 
Wat'ling Street, 149. 
Welsh, 139. 

Wes'sex, 139, 144, 147, 148, 150. 
White, Governor John, 345-347. 
William of Orange, 323, 324. 
William the Conqueror, 156-162. 
Windows, 307, 308. 
Wit'en-a-ge-mot, 140, 169. 
Wo'den, 120, 132, 140. 
Women, among ancient Germans, 117. 
Xerxes (zerx'ez). King, 21-28. 

Yoke, passing under the, 59. 
Yu-ca-tan', 285. 

Za'ma. battle of, 74, 75. 
Zeus (Jupiter), 5, 8, 34. 



m 3 1912 



